Birds information in English

The Indian Pitta

Pitta brachyura (Linnaeus).

Size: That of the Mynah, but with a stub tail.

Fieid Characters: A gaudily coloured, thrush-like bird

mostly seen singly on the ground amongst undergrowth. Sexes
alike.

Distribution: Practically all India—-excepting the dry N.-W.
portions—Assim and Ceylon. It is resident in North and
Central India, but a winter visitor to South India and Ceylon,

Habits: The Pitta is a bird of well-wooded and scrubby
country. It is fond of nullahs and ravines with plenty of
undergrowth, deciduous as well as evergreen, and is met with
both near and away from human habitations, It is mainly
terrestrial in habits, but roosts at night in low trees. It hops
along the ground like a thrush, turning over dead leaves and
digging with its bill into the damp earth for insects and grubs
which comprise its food. The stumpy tail] is constantly wagged,
slawly and deliberately, up and down. When disturbed, it
flies up into some low branch, but soon descends again to resuine
its hunt. In flight, which is slow and feeble, the round white
spot near the tip of the extended wings is conspicuous. The
most common call-note is a loud, clear double whistle wheet-tew,
heard mostly in the mornings and evenings and also on cloudy
overcast days. It is uttered from the ground as well as from a
branch, at the rate of 3 or 4 in 10 seconds, and is sometimes kept
up for over 5 minutes at a stretch. The birds reply to one
another, often 3 or 4 calling from different directions simulta-
neously, Each time the bird calls it pulls itself upright and
jerks its head well back as when swallowing water.

Nesting: The season is between May and August. The nest
is a large globular structure about a foot in diameter, composed
of fine twigs, grass, roots, dry leaves, etc. with a circular entrance
hole at the side. It is placed on the ground in scrub jungle
under shelter of a bush, or up in the fork of a low tree. The
eges—four to six in number—are a beautiful glossy china-white,
with spots, specks and fine hair lines of dul! or dark purple.

168
 

The Yellow-fronted Pied or Mahratta Woodpecker.
Male

169
81. The Yellow-fronted Pied or Mahratta
Woodpecker

Dryobates mahratiensis (Latham).

Size: Ahout that of the Bulbul.

Field Characters: A typical woodpecker with long, stout,
pointed bill and stiff, wedge-shaped tail. Spotted black and
white plumage with brownish-yellow crown and scarlet patch
on abdomen and vent. The female lacks the scarlet in the
occipital crest. Singly or pairs, in orchards and wooded couutry.

Distribution: Resident practically throughout India from
about 2,500 feet in the Himalayas to North Ceylon—plains as
wellas hills at moderate clevations. Also Assam aud Upper Burma.
Two races are recognised, viz., the darker South India-Ceylon
tace inahrattensis, and the paler North India-Burma aurocristatus.

Habits: This little woodpecker frequents open scrub country,
light deciduous forest, mango orchards and groves of trees. It
avoids heavy evergreen jungle. It is usually met with in pairs—
commonly in association with the mixed avian hunting parties.
The birds fly from tree-trunk to tree-trunk alighting low down
and scuttling upwards jerkily, direct or in spirals, halting at
intervals to tap on the bark or peer into crevices for lurking
insects, The tail is pressect against the stem to form a supporting
tripod. Their diet consists of ants and grubs which are captured
by means of the long, extensile, barb-tipped tongue. The call
notes commonly uttered are a sharp click, click or click-r-r-7.
The flight is swift and undulating attained by a series of rapid
wing beats followed by short pauses.

Nesting: The season is principally from January to May.
The eggs are laid in a hole excavated by the birds in the decaying
stem or branch of a tree, at moderate heights. When in
a horizontal branch, the entrance hole—about 14” in diameter—
ig situated on the underside. No linmg is employed. The eggs—
3 in number—are glossy white, unmarked. Both sexes share
in excavating the nest-hole, incubation and care of the young.

170
The Golden-backed Woodpecker
Female

171

 
82. The Golden-backed Woodpecker
Brachyplernus benghalensis (Linnaeus).

Size: Slightly larger than the Myna.

Field Characters: The male differs from the female
(illustrated) in having the entire crown and crest crimson. Singly
or pairs, on tree-trunks in wooded country, orchards, etc.

Distribution: Resident practically throughout the Indian
Empire excepting Burma, from the llimalayan foot hills down.
Five races are recognised on details of size and colouration.
The pale form dilutus is confined to Sind and the dry portions of
of the N.-W., the richly coloured fehminae to the heavy rainfall
area of S.-W. India. The typical race benghalensis occurs in
North and Central India and Assim; /punecticollis ocenpies
peninsular India (excluding the S.-W.) south of Godavari River.
Ceylon has a small pale endemic race intermedius.

Habits: The Golden-backed Woodpecker affects open scrub-
and-tree jungle and is also partial to mango topes, groves of
ancient trees and cocoanut plantations. It is not shy and freely
enters gardens and compounds in the proximity of human
habitations. The birds go about in pairs, following each other
from tree to tree. They cling to the trunks low down and work
upwards systematically, direct or in spirals, in short jerky spurts,
tapping on the bark at intervals to dislodge insects and to discover
the hidden galleries and grubs of boring beetles. Occasionally
a bird will slide a few feet down-in ‘reverse gear ’—to
investigate some promising crevice. The dipping flight, typical
of the woodpeckers, is noisy and consists of several rapid wing
strokes followed by a pause. The call, uttered principally on
the wing but also while at rest, is a loud, harsh, chattering
‘laugh.’ Black ants form a considerable proportion of its food.
They are captured on the trees, as well as on the ground. We
have observed. one clinging to a halfi-ripe mango, digging into it
and swallowing the pulp. Occasionally it also feeds on the nectar
of Coral flowers.

Nesting: ‘The season is between March and August, and two
successive broods are commonly raised. The eggs are laid in a
hollow in a stem or brancli excavated by the birds, 8 to 30 feet
from the ground. The round entrance hole is about 3 inches
across. The shaft or tunnel ends in a widened egg chamber.
The normal clutch consists of three eggs, glossy china white,
unmarked. Both sexes share in excavating the hollow,
incubation and tending the young.

1972
 

The Crimson-breasted Barbet or Coppersmith,

173
83. The Crimson-breasted Barbet or
Coppersmith
Xantholoema haemacephala (Miller).

Size: Slightly larger and more dumpy than the Honse-Sparrow.
Field Characters: A heavy-billed grass-green bird with
crimson breast and forehead, and green-streaked yellowish
underparts. Short square-cut tail, distinctly triangular in
overhead flight. Sexes alike. Singly or loose parties, on Banyan
and Peepal trees in fruit.

Distribution: [Resident throughout the greater part of the
Indian Empire from about 2,500 feet in the Himalayiis dewn.
Rare in the arid portions of the N.-W., and replaced by the allied
Crimson-throated species (X. malabarica) in the humid forest
tracts of S.-W. India.

Habits; The Crimson-breasted Barbet is a commen bird
throughout its range. Its loud, monotonous ringing call tah... tah,
etc. as ofa distant coppersmith hammering on his metal, every 2
seconds or so throughout the hotter parts of the day, with no
variation and seldom a pause—are amongst the more familiar
bird voices of the countryside. It is found wherever there are
trees—especially Banyan, Peepal and the varions other Fici—
be it in outlying forest or in the heart of a noisy city. When
calling the head is bobbed from side ta side producing a curious
ventriloquistic effect. This, combined with the assimilative
colouration of the bird, makes it difficult to locate amongst the
foliage. The Coppersmith is entirely arboreal and never descends
to the ground. Its food consists almost exclusively of frnits and
berries of which Ficus figs form anoverwhelming proportion. The
birds collect in large nuinbers to feed on trees laden with these
figs, in company with mynas, bulbuls, green pigeous’ and a host
of other frugivorous species. It occasionally captures moths
and winged termites, launching ungainly and ludicrous aerial
sallies from a branch in their pursuit.

Nesting : The season ranges between January and June and
sometimes two broods are reared in succession. The eggs are
laid in hollows 6 to 8 inches deep excavated by the birds in
branches or decaying poles and tree stumps, at moderate heights.
‘The tunnels are lengthened and used year after year and may in
time becomie several feet dcep. Softwood trees such as Coral and
Drumstick are commonly selected. As in woodpeckers, the
entrance hole-—about 2 inches in diameter—is placed on the
underside when a horizontal branch is used. The eggs~~usually
three—are glossless white, unmarked. Both sexes share in
excavating the nest tunnel, incubation and feeding the young.

 

174
 

The Common Hawk-Cuckoo or Brain-fever Bird

175
84. The Common Hawk-Cuckoo or
Brain-fever Bird

Hierococeyx varius (Vahl).

Size: About that of the Pigeon. Slenderer and with longer
tail.

Field Characters; Above ashy-grey, below whitish cross-
barred with brown. Broadly barred tail. General colouration
flight and movements very like the Shikra’s. Sexes alike.
Singly, in wooded country.

Distribution : Ceylon and India north to the Outer Himalayan
foothills and including Eastern Bengal and Western Assam.
Resident, but also partly local migrant.

Habits: The Hawk-Cuckoo inhabits scrub jungle and deciduous
forest. It is also partial to gardens, groves of trees, tanga topes
and the like, in the neighbourhood of cultivation and human
habitations. It is mostly silent during the winter months, but
with the approach of the hot weather its all-too-famiiliar calls are
agein ‘on the air.” As the season advances the bird becomes
ageravatingly obstreperous. The loud screaming call has been
aptly rendered as ‘' Brain-fever.’ In Uindistani it is rendered
as ‘ Pee-kahan?’ (Where is my leve?), and in Mahratti as
* Paos-ala’ (Rain’s coming !). This is repeated with mono-
tonous persistency 5 or 6 times in succession, rising in crescendo
to feverish pitch and breaking off abruptly. The bird soon
commences it all over again. These vocal exhilarations are kept
up throughout the day and far into the night. -nsually all through
under a bright moon.

The flight of this cuckoo---fairly close to the ground, rapid

wing-strokes followed by a little sailing—and its habit of shooting
up into the branches of a tree before alighting, are sufficiently
like the Shikra’s to cause a flutter amongst small hirds each time
it is on the move. Its food consists mainly of hairy caterpillars
and soft-bodicd insects, but berries and wild figs are also eaten on
occasion,
Nesting : The season ranges between March and June. The
Brain-fever Bird belongs to the group of arboreal parasitic
cuckoos which foist their eggs and family cares upon other birds.
lt is habitually parasitic on babblers, noteably of the genera
Turdoides and Argya. Its eggs are blue and closely resemble
those of the dupes’ in colour, shape and size. The young cuckoo
usually manages to eject his rightful nest-fellows soon after
hatching. It thus monopolises the attention of its foster-parents
and grows apace,

176
 

The Pied Crested Cuckoo.

177
85. The Pied Crested Cuckoo

Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert).
Size: About that of the Myna, but with a inuch longer tail.

Field Characters: Black above inclnding prominent crest
—white below. A white roundish patch on wings, and white
tips of tail feathers conspicuous in flight. Sexes alike. Singly
or pairs, in wooded country.

Distribution : Practically the whole of the Indian Empire up

to about 8,000 feet in the Himalayas. Two races are recognised

entirely on differences of size. ‘The sinaller jacubinus is resident

iu Ceylon and South India, the larger pica being a rains (breeding) ~
visitor to the rest of our area, presumably from Africa.

Habits: The Pied Crested Cuckoo frequents open, well-wooded
country in the neighbourhood of cultivation. It is commonly met
with in gardens, compounds or groves of trees within the limits
of towns and villages, and occasionally even in evergreen forest.
The arrival in our midst of the larger migrant race coincides with
the onset of the S.-W. Monsoon. The birds proclaim their
presence by chasing one another about, flying from tree to tree
and calling noisily—a rather plaintive, metallic piu. piu. .pee-pee-
piu... pee-pee-pitt, etc. Often only the tinkling monosyllabic piu
is heard. The call is uttered on the wing or from an exposed
perch near the top of a tree or bush. It may also be heard during
moonlit nights. In courtship flight the tail is partly spread, the
wing-strokes are slow and deliberate (‘ delayed action’) as in a
pigeon ‘clapping,’ and the bird calls the while. This is an
entirely arboreal species and though normally deseending inte
low bushes in search of food, it never actually sets foot on ground.
Its diet consists of grasshoppers and hairy caterpillars to which
berries are sometimes added.

Nesting: The principal laying months are during the S.-W.
Monsoon, from June to August, and coincide locally with the
breeding season of its accustomed fosterers. It is parasitic
mainly on babblers of the genera Turdoides and Avgya. Its blue
eggs approximate closely to those of the babblers, and at the
same time they are indistinguishable from the eggs of the Brain-
fever Bird. Often more than one cuckoo egg are found in a
bahbler’s nest, but whether this is the product of the same or
different females is uncertain. As in other cuckoos of this group,
the young interloper disposes of its rightful nest-fellows soon
after hatching.

178
 

The Koel

Female
Male
86. The Koel

Eudyaamis scolopaceus (Linnacus).

Size: About that of the House-Crow, Imt of slenderer build and
with a longer tail,

Field Characters: Male glistening black with yellowish-green
lil]; female brown, spotted and barred with white. Singly or
pairs, in groves of trees, ete.

Distribution: Throughout the Indian Empire except the
N-W. BF, Province. Two races are recognised, viz., the smaller
scnlopaceus vucenpying India and Ceylon, the larger malavana- -
in which the Temale is more rufescent Assam and Burma.
Resident, but also local migrant,

Habits: ‘She Koel is one of our most familiar birds, its call
being perhaps even better known than its appearance. It
frequents gardens, groves and open country abounding in large
leafy trees. It is entirely arboreal and never descends to the
ground. During winter the bird is silent, but with the approach
of the hot weather and its coincident breeding season, it ses
extremely vociferous. ALL through tliat season its ond, shrill,
shrieking notes resound on the countryside thronghout the day

 

and often far into the night. The call begins with a low haw,

Int rises in seale with each successive A4a@-o0 untibat the seventh or
eighth it reaches feverish pitch and breaks aff abruptly. The
bird soon commenees it all over again. Another common note
is a sharp quick-repeated Aik-Aik-Atk uttered by the female as
she dashes from tree to tree ar hops amongst the branches, — its
food consists chiefly of Banyan and Peepal figs and berries of
various kinds, but insects and caterpillars are also eaten. His
flight is swift and straight, anda Koel fleeing before the vindictive
onslinght of a pair of irate crows is i common sight.

Nesting: The laying season is mainty from April to Angust
and corresponds with that of its most usval host, the House-
Crow, Occasionally the Jungle-Crow, whieh nests somewhat
eurlier, is victimised. Its eggs are rather smiller, but very like
the crow's in appearance, pale grevish-green or stone colour
speckled and Dlotched with reddish-brown, As minty is rr have
heen found in a single crow's nest. 1 appears that the female
Koel seizes the opportunity to deposit her egg in a crow’s nest
while the male deliberately draws the owners away by leading
them a chase. 11 is also evident that the young Koel usmuly
succeeds in disposing of his rightful foster-brothers at an early
age,

 
 

The Crow-Pheasant or Coucal,

tar
87. The Crow-Pheasant or Coucal
Cenlropits sinensis (Stephens).

Size: That of the Jungle-Crow.

Field Characters: <A clumsy, glossy black bird with cons-
picuous chestnut wings and long, broad black tail. Sexes alike.
Singly or pairs, stalking along the ground in andergrowth.
Distribution : Resident throughout the Indian lmpire from
ahout 6,000 feet in the Tlimdlayds. Three races are recognised
on size and details of colouration, mz, the N. India-N. Assiun
race s/vensis, the peninsular India and Ceylon parroti, and the 8.
Assam-Burma, fitermedius,

Habits: The Crow-Pheasant is a dweller of epen country,
poth hill and plain, which abounds in bushes and small tree
growth, preferably interspersed with patches of Uall grassland.
Itis commonly found about cultivation and human habitelions.
It is met with singly or in pairs skulking its way through under-
growth in search of food, head lowered and tail almost trading
the ground, frequently opened and shut. The wings are short and
rounded and its (ight weak and laboured in consequence. — In trees
it hops from branch to branch with agility, but it is essentially
it ground loving species. The call is a deep, resonant ood repeated
at slow but regolar intervals, especially dnring the hot weather,
and can be heard a long way off, Besides this, i¢ has a variety
of harsh croaks and gurghug chuckles - some distinctly weird
uttered chietly in the breeding seasan or when the bird is annoyed.
When calling, the tail is partially raised and jerked from: side
to side; the head is lowered, the throat putted out and the
whole body quivers with each successive Gok. In the breeding
season the cock goes through a fantastic display before his mate,
‘fanning’ and cocking his tail over the back and strutting
in front of her with drooping wings. Its food consists of grass
hoppers, beetles, caterpillars, field mice, byards amd snakes.
lt is highly destructive to the eggs and young of other birds.
Tts flesh is much esteemed by quacks as a cnre for bronchial
wihnents,

Nesting: The season ranges between February and September,
varying with local conditions. The Crow-Pheasant belongs
to the group of terrestrial non-parasitic enekoos which shoulder
their own domestic responsibility. The nest is a large untidy
globular mass of leaves and twigs, with a lateral entrance hole,
placed in the centre of a bush, or in the branch of a tree fairly
low down. The eggs-- three or four-- ate white, chalky, glossless
and unmarked. Both sexes share in building the nest, incubation
and care of the young.

 

 
 
88. The Alexandrine or Large Indian
Parakeet

Psittacula eipatria Linnaeus.

Size: Abont that of the Pigcon, but slenderer and with a long pointed
tail.

Field Characters: A large grass-green parakeet with the typical
short, massive, deeply hooked red bill, and a conspicuous maroon
patch on each shoulder. The rose-pink and black collar of the male
(illustrated) is absent in the female. Noisy parties, in cultivation and
wooded country.

Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian {mpire, Four
races are recognised on minor differences of size and details of coloura-
tion, viz., the N. India-Assdin race wipalensis, the peninsular India-
Ceyloa enpatria, the Burmese arvensis, and the Andamans magnirostris.
Mainly resident, bunt some seasonal locat movement is also perceptible.

Hablts: The Large Parakeet aflects wooded country, orchards and
cultivation. It is usually met with in parties af 3 or 4 birds, but
where food is plentiful many such parties coalesce. The birds have
communal roosts amongst groves of trees and cocoanut palms where
enormous numbers collect every evening, party after party arriving
from long distances and all quarters, and scttling in for the night to
the accompaniment of a great deal of noise and chatter. The flight
is graceful and swift inspite of the apparently leisurely wing beats.
The voice is deeper and more powerful than that of the conmoner
Rose-ringed Parakeet. Its food consists of fruits, berries and grain,
Along with its relatives, the other parakeets, it causes considerable
damage to orchard fruit and ripening crops. It also feeds regularly
on the nectar of such flowers as Krythvina, Bombax and Butea, but
owing to its clumsy and destructive methods its visits are of no
consequence in cross-fertilisation. Thus, from the economic point of
view, the parakects appear to be wholly harmful to Man’s interests,
This, and the 2 specics that follow, are favourite pets in India and as
such must be familiar to every townsman from behind the uninspiring
bars of the diminutive hoop iren cage so commonly seen in bazaars,
They learn to repeat a few words rather indistinctly.

Nesting: The season over the greater part of its range is between
December and April. The nest is an unlined hollow in a tree-trunk
excavated by the birds, at moderate heights and up to about 100 feet.
Occasionally natural hollows are used, and even holes in walls of
buildings. The eggs—two to four in number—are white, unmarked.
They are rather oval in shape, blunt at both ends. Both sexes share
in excavating the nest-hole, incubation and tending the young.
Incubation is said to occupy about 21 days.

184
 

Photo ELH. N, Lowther,
Large Parakeet at Nest-hole.

Parakeets usually cut the holes themselves.

185
89. The Rose-ringed Parakeet
Psittacula krameri Scopoli.

Size: Slightly larger than the Myna, and with a long pointed
tail.

Field Characters: A smaller replica of the Alexandrine
Parakeet, but lacking the maroon shoulder patches. In the
female the black and rose-pink collar of the male (illustrated)
isabsent. Noisy flocks, in enltivated and lightly wooded country.
Distribution: Resident practically throughont the Indian
Empire from the Himalayan foothills south. Plains, and
sparingly up to about 5,000 feet in the hills. Two races are
recognised on size, and colonr of tower mandible, vis., the larger
N. India-Assim-Burma race borealis and the sinaller S. India-
Ceylon manillensis which oceurs roughly sonth of lat. 20° N,
Habits: The Rose-ringel Parakeet ranks with the Crow,
Sparrow and Myna amongst our commonest and most farniliar
birds. It is as much at home on the countryside as within the
precints of a bustling city. It goes about in small parties which
band themselves into huge noisy flocks where food is plentiful,
and do considerable damage to ripening grain crops and orehard
fruit. The birds clamber about the twigs and gnaw at the
ripe and semi-ripe fruit, destroying much more than they eat.
It is a common sight at wayside railway stations ta see ummbers
of Rose-ringed Parakeets clinging to the sacks of grain awaiting
entrainment, biting inte them and helping themselves to the
contents. Their well-known loud, sharp, screaming calls fee-ak. .
hee-ah . .kee-ah, etc., areuttered both whileat rest and on the wing.
They have common roosts in groves of trees and cocoanut palms
where large numbers assemble every evening from over wide
stretches of the surronnding country. ‘These parakeets are
commonly caged and taught to repeat a few words and to perform
tricks such as firing off a toy cannon.

Nesting: he season over the greater part of its range is
between February and April. The eges are laid in a hollaw
in a tree-trunk, usually but not always, excavated by the birds
themselves. It also nests freely in holes in rock scarps and
walls of buildings, both in ruins and occupied, frequently im
the midst of the noisiest and most congested parts of a town.
The eggs—four to six —are pure white and the usual roundish
ovals. [oth sexes share in excavating the hole, incubation
and care of the yonng. When the nest is threatened, the owners
“summon assistance and the neighbourhood is soon seething
with a noisy rabble of parakeets intent on shouting aggression
down if nothing else.

 

186
 

GRP awed ah OCR

The Blossom-headed Parakeet. Male
187
90. The Blossom-headed Parakeet
Pstitacula cvanocephala Linnaeus.

Size: About that of the Myna; slenderer and with a long,
pointed tail.

Field Characters: Distinguishable from the Rose-ringed
species by its smaller size, bluish-red head and maroon shonkder-
patches. In the female the head is bluish-grey and the maroon
shoulder-patches are absent or obsolete. locks, in wooded
country and about forest cultivation.

Distribution: Practically thronghont the Indian linpire—
excluding the dry arcas of the N.-W.- -from about 6,000 feet
in the Himalayas. Three races are recognised on details of
colouration, viz, the S. tndia-Ceylon eyanocephatis, the N.
India-Assain  bengaleusis, and the Burma rosea. Resident,
but also seasonal local migrant.

Habits: On the whole, the Blossom-headedt Parakeet prefers
better wooded country than its Rose-ringed cousin. It is usually
seen in small parties, but the birds will sometinies collect in
immense flocks and commit serious cdepredations on ripening
crops, especially in cultivation in clearings about outlying forest
villages, Their flight is very swift and jlocks on the wing turn
and twist their way through the stems of forest trees with
astonishing agility and orderliness, uttering a shrill, interrogative
tooi or tooi-tooi ? as they dash along. This distinetive cali,
coupled with the yellow tail-tip which is conspicuous in flight,
makes their identity unmistakable. Lesides grain and fruit,
they eat a large quantity of Hower nectar whenever available,
but are destructive in their methods of obtaining it and conse-
quently of no service in cross-fertilisation,

Nesting: The season ranges between January and May.
“The nest-hole is generally excavated by the birds themselves
in a rotten tree-stem or branch at moderate heights from the
ground. Several pairs often nest together in the same or ad-
joining trees in a loose colony. As with the other parakeets,
there is no lining tu the uest, the eggs being laid on the bare woot
or on the chips and debris that have tumbled in during excava-
tion. A nornial clutch is of four to six eggs—pure white, smooth
roundish-ovals. J}oth sexes share in excavating the nest-hole,
incubation and care of the young.

r88
 

189

Swallows collecting before migration.
BIRD MIGRATION

No resident in India who is even moderately observant can
fail to notice the great influx of birds that takes place into this
country annually between September and November, or to remark
upon their abundance during winter in places where none were
to be seen a couple of months before. The species cagerly
sought after by the man with the gun—the snipe, dnck, geese,
cranes and others—together with the hosts of smaller fry that
interest him less or not at all---the sandpipers, tree-warblers,
larks, wagtails and pipits- all seem suddenly ta pop up from
nowhere. While this transformation is magical enough to
obtrude itself on the least observant, it is doubtful if tive persons
in a hundred ever stop to ask themselves what brings it about
and how, To the man in the street the birds come at this season
simply becanse it is in the nature of things that they should.
Whence they come is not his concern, while why or haw they do
it is clearly the birds’ ewu affair!

Yet, the snbject of Migration is one of the most enthralling
branches of the study of hird-life. The magnitude of the move-
ments and the regularity and orderliness of their occurrence are
no whit less than the cyele of the seasons ; they have aroused the
wonderment of Man through the ages. The Ked Indians of the
Fur Conntries actually named their calendar months after the
arrival of migrant birds. A hard-headed scientifie ontlook
is now helping to dispel some of the fanciful notions entertained
by our forebears, but it must be admitted that many of the
phenomena involved continue to remain a mystery and can
never emerge from the realm of speciation.

Until not so long ago there was a widely prevalent belief
that small birds such as the swallow, nightingale aud cuckoo
hibernated like mammals and reptiles to get over unfavourable
weather conditions. This notion had held ground sinee the days
of Aristotle and even that excellent naturalist Gilbert White of
Selbonrne was not immune from the belief that swallows passed
the winter buried in mud at the bottom of ponds, in a torpid
condition whence they emerged with the first signs of favourable
weather in the spring.

What is bird migration ?

Landsborough Thomson, an eminent authority, describes
Bird Migration as ‘ Changes of habitat periodically recurring
and alternating in direction, which tend to secure optimum
environmental conditions at all times.’ The italics are im-
portant since it is just this back and forth movement that is the
erncia] feature of the migration of birds. The periodic move-
ments of locust swarms for example, loosely referredl to as

 

190
 

Photo = EH, N, Lowther
The Hammock Nest of the Black-headed Oriole
migrations are really overilow movements and do not entail
a return to the starting point. Thus they ditfer markedly from
the seasonal return tralfic of birds. The ‘ pendulun-swing *
_movement is noticeable in some other groups of animals as well,
but it has reached its rhythmical climax among birds.

Its extent and advantages

On aceount of their special attrilutes-—warm-bloodedness,
feather covering and unparalleled powers of fight- -the pheno-
menon of migration finds its highest development in birds.
Although directly they are the least atieeted of all animals
by extremes of heat and cokl, it is the difficulties connected
with food-getting under adverse winter conditions that compel
them to change their quarters or perish. Migration enables
birds to inhabit two different areas at the respective seasons most
favourable in each. It involves a swing from a breeding or
nesting place—-the bird’s home. -o a feeding or resting place---
its winter quarters. It is an axiom of nature thi birds always
nest in the colder portion of their migratory range. Thus, in
the Northern Ilemisphiere their breeding gronnds lic nearer the
Aretic or Temperate Zone and their winter quarters nearer the
Eqnator, In the Southern Hemisphere the case is reversed,
Although some migration takes place from cast to west, its general
direction as a whole may be considered as North to South. The
movement may vary from no more than a few miles snehi as
from the North Indian plains to a conple of thousand feet wp
in the Himalayan foothills to several thousand miles either
way as is the case with many of our wintering wildfowl The
longest knawn migratory journey is performed bi-annually by
the Arctic Tern (Sterne inacviva) which from the Arctic winter
travels south, tight aeross the werld to the Antaretie summer
and back again- a distance of over 11,000 miles cach way !

A consideration of the various theories to explain the origin
of this ° Racial Custom’? of migration among birds would here
be out of place. We shall proceed at once to take stack of some
of the more obvious as well as the more bewildering facts can-
eerning it. The resultant advantages of migration to dirds is
self-evident. Absence from igh latitudes during the winter
enables: (a) Avoidanee of cold and stormy weather, (6) Avoid-
anee of short daylight hours available for search of food, and
{ec} Avoidance of those conditions that bring about a scarcity
of food supply, such as freezing of water and snow enshrouding
the ground.

 

The advantages of a return to high latitudes in summer are ¢
(a) Availability of suitable and uncongested nesting territories,
(b) Existence of long hours of daylight for search of food when

 

1g2
 

193

A Flight of Rosy Pastors
food is most required for the young, and (c} The presence ef an
abundant food supply following on the luxuriant growth of spring
vegetation.

What stimulates a bird to migrate ?

The urge to migrate at the appropriate seasons is evoked by
both external and internal stimuli, Experiments point to the
assumption that the primary external stimulus is the variations
in day length. The internal stimulus seems io be provided) by
the state of the reproductive organs which, in the laboratory,
can be brought to known stages of maturity by manipulating
the duration of day length. The non-existence of the migratory
instinct in sterile birds is consistent with this view. Readers
interested in the details of Prof. W. Rowian’s original and ingenious
experiments on the causative aspects of bird migration should
read his remarkalile book Phe Riddle of Migration (1u3.).

What determines the goal of a migratory journey ?
How do birds find the way to this goal ?

 

    
 

 

These are two of the many problems to whieh satisfactory
answers are difficult to find, The great mass of experimental
and observational data that has accumulated within recent
years does not advance our knowledge much beyond the stage
of conjecture.

In the spring the adult males are the first to arrive on
their breeding grounds. They are followed by the adult females
while immatare birds that will not breed till the following year
bring up the rear. Inautumn the order of precedence is reversed;
the southward journey is performed more leisurely with many
stop-overs on the way. The young birds, ino many cases not
more than a couple of mouths old lead the vanguard, the adults
following later. Now comes the niystery. The young birds
lave had noo previous experience cither of the route or the
destination, often thousands of miles away, vet they accomplish
the journey without undue mortality through accidents and
misadventure and with amazing aceuracy. Of the various
explanations suggested the most acceptable seems to be that this
prescience of the goal and route is the expression of am imborn
racial custom inherited through countless generations of migrants
journeying bi-annually year after year, between their breeding
grounds and their winter quarters. Tt is on a par with other
vital urges such as building at the appointed season, without
previous experience or training, of nests in accordance with the
constant pattern of the species, howseever complicated their
architecture,

 

 

 

194
Many speculations are also offered for how birds find ' their
way sensitivity to terrestrial magnetism, visnal recognition
of landmarks at so on---but the mystery of the initial determi-
nation by a young anc inexperienced bird of the goal and route
of its long migratory journey reniains.

Accuracy and regularity of returns

Birds not only return to the same general locality for breeding
year after year, but often also to the identical nesting site.
Once the goal is roughly reached there seems every likelihood
that tandmarks, enregistered on the senses in some way as the
resnlt of previous experience and association may play their
part in guiding old birds to their former haunts with the precision
that is well known, The ringing or banding method has now
establishect the fact that swallows in Europe often return not
only to the sane locality Dut also to the same bnilding for nesting
purposes year after year, covering distances of 6,000 miles or
more cach way during the interval. This is the case with many
other true migrants as well |

The great regularity and punctuality almost to the day,
with which migrant birds arrive in a given locality is seen even
from the few published records kept over several years by obser-
vers residing in different parts of this comitry. This is all the
more amazing, when the enormous distances many of the species
have to travel are taken into account.

Varying status of winter visitors

The status of every winter visitor to India varies in the
different portions of its winter habitat. ‘Take any locality-
say Bhopal in Central India. A large number of species coming
in from across onr Northern and N.-W, frontiers in autuni touch
Bhopal on the southbound journey to their winter quarters in
peninsular India and Ceylon. Some of these stay behind and
may be seen in Bhopat throughout dhe cold weather. These will
be classed here as trie winter visitors, Other species make their
appearance for a few days at the commencement of the season
and then perhaps are not seen again till they return nortlawards
at the beginning of the hot weather. These are the autunim
and sprig passage migrants respectively. Others again may
be seen on their southward journey in autumn but not on the
return, since some species habitually travel to and from their
winter quarters by different routes. Thus, while these are
antumy passage migrants in Bhopal, they are spring passage
migrants in another part of the country. Similarly some species
may pass over Bhopal onty on their northward journey, in
spring and have the status of autumn passage migrants elsewhere,
Again there are species who though true winter visitors may

 

 

 

 

 

 

195
yet have their numbers vastly augmented by waves of passage
migrants from the north or south at the appropriate seasons.
The status of these species will be a combination of winter visitor

and passage migrant.
Locai migration

Tn addition to these very extensive movements of immigrant
birds from beyond our frontiers, there are movemeuts of a
similar but perhaps less spectacular kind ceaselessly going on
amongst our resident bird population. The periodical appear-
ances and disappearances of the Paradise Flycatcher, Golden
Oriole, and Pitta must be obvious to any one with an eye
for birds. In Northern India and along the base of the
Himalayan foothills where the changes of the seasons are
more pronounced than nearer the Equator, these local migratory
movements are especially prominent. The seasonal arrivals
and departures of these loeal migrants are uo less regular in their
cycle than of the true migrants. In some portions of the country
one species may be a summer visitor, in another w rains visitor
while it may be found in a third locality only during the winter
months. Apart from these regular seasonal shiflings, other
movements of an even more parochial character are constantly
taking place. ‘They are governed by local conditions of heat,
drought, or floods and by their resultant effect upon the available
food supply: the dowering season of certain plauts and the
ripening of certain fruits.

Abnormal local migration

Under stress of abnormal natural conditions birds are
frequently driven out of their accustomed habitats in search
of a living and are then met with as stragglers far out of their
normal range. .

Thus, practically no square mile of the Indian continent
is static for any length of time as regards its bird population,
and there is an unending chain of comings and goings of species
and individuals.

Altitudinal migration

Lastly, mention must be made of altitudinal migration
which is particularly marked among species living in the
Himalayas. In winter, high elevation birds are forced to descend
to lower levels by exigencies of the weather and the descending
snow-line. With the return of spring, when the snow-line
recedes upwards they re-ascend to breed in the higher hills.
These altitudinal movements are not confined to high-elevation
birds, but are indulged in also by species resident at lower
altitudes.

196
A ringed Sparrow-Hawk ready to be released

197

 
Bird ringing

Apart from the purely observational method of bird mi-
gration study, which to be of real scientific value entails an
unbroken continuity of careful records over prolonged periods,
the method of ‘ringing' birds has in recent years been very
extensively and protitably employed in Europe and America
for collecting factual data. ird-ringiug—or ‘ banding’ as
it is called in America—consists of fastening a light alnminium
ring of appropriate size, stamped with a number and address,
to the instep region or tarsus of a trapped or netted bird, or of a
yaung bird before it leaves the nest. A detailerl record is kept
in a special register, and the bird is then released. A small
percentage of these ringed hirds are subsequently shot or recap-
tured. in distant lands, and the rings returned or their inscription
communicated to the marking station with data as to the exact
locality where recovered, date and other partienlars. When a
large number of such recovery records have been obtained,
it is possible gradually to build up positive kuowledge of the
routes followed on migration by different species, and a uumber
of other important facts impossible to ascertain in any other way.
Thus, the ringing of White Storks in) Western) Germany
and East Prussia has established beyond a possibility of doubt
that the Fast Prussian birds migrate to Africa by a south-eastern
ronte through the Balkans, white the West German storks travel
by a south-western rente through Spain, tt was by means of
a German-ringed stork recovered in Bikanér that we are now
able to state definitely that some at least of the White Storks
that visit us in winter originate frou. Germany. Very little
ringing work has so far been done in India, but the results such
as they are, of great value and interest. The map at page ty5
shows sume of the must important recoveries of ringed birds
so far obtained. They furnish the only positive confirmation
of the hitherto conjectured origin of some of our winter visitors,

Velocity and altitude of migratory flight

Modern devices such as the aeroplane, speed indicators,
altimeters and other instruments used in aviation and anti-
aircraft gunnery have made it possible to discard the almost
fabulous notions formerly held and to arrive at fairly accurate
estimates of the speed and height at which migrating birds fly.
Velocities naturally vary with species of bird and prevailing
meteorological conditions. The average cruising speed of ducks
and geese, for instance, has been found to be between 4o and 50
miles per hour. Under favourable weather conditions it may
reach §5-6o m.p.h, or slightly more. A hird’s flying day (or night)
tanges from 6 1o 11 hours, and the following figures are of interest

    

  

 
 

198
as showing the average mileage known to be covered ina ‘ hop’:
Coot 160 miles; Stork 125 miles (6 hrs.) ; Woodcock 250-300;
Plover 550 (11 hrs.),

Non-stop flights of at least 2,000 miles across open sea are
undertaken by the Eastern Golden Plover (Charadrius dominicus
futvus)-—which is also a winter visitor to India. This bird breeds
in Western Alaska and N.-I£, Siberia and is a regular visitor on the
Hawaiian Islands. Also the Snipe Capella hardwickii, which
breeds only in Japan and spends the winter in E. Australia and
Tasmania, must habitually fly 3,000 miles non-stop over the sea
since it has never been met anywhere in between. There are
others, especially among the shore hirds or waders, that cover
enornious stretches without halting for rest or food. A probable
example of such a fong-distance flyer in India is the Woodcock
(Scolopax rusticola) whose nearest breeding place is in the
Himalayas. It winters in some numbers in the Nilgiri and other
hills of 5. India, but is found nowhere in between. ‘The least
distance it must cover in one hop, therclore, is about 1,500
miles. The Pied Ground Thrush (Geokichla wardii) travelling
by the Eastern Ghats route from the Himalayas to the Nilgiris
and on to Ceylon, probably covers equally long distanees non-
stop.

It has been believed in the past that migrating birds flew
at stupendons heights and that in fact it was of some particular
advantage for them to do so—for locating landmarks, minimising
air resistance and in other ways. In actual practice, however,
it is now found that exeept where lofty mountain barriers have
to be crossed, migrating birds chiefly fly under 1,300 feet and
only very rarely over 3,000 fect above the ground. Some species
indeed hahitually tly much lower, especially over the surface
of the sea where they have no trees and similar obstacles to
avoid.

On their bi-annual journeys to and from the plains of India
birds do uot appear, ordinarily, to use the valleys of the larger
rivers as highways, as has often been suggested and long believed.
There is ample evidence to show that they fly directly across
the Himalayan ranges thereby shortening their journeys very
considerably. Sven Hedin observed large numbers of mig-
rating ducks at great heights in Tibet at the source of the Indus
in autumn. One of the Everest Expeditions met several immig-
rating birds in September at 17,000 ft. among them heing
Temminck’s Stint, ‘ Painted Snipe’ (?), Pintail Snipe, House
Martin and several Pipits. More than once migrating waders
were heard at this altitude passing overhead, Curlew being
unmistakable. Meinertzhagen came across various species
of duck in Ladakh on passage to India over the highest parts

199
of the Himalayas. More recently (1937) Shipton in his expedi-
tion to the Karakorams found large numbers of dead frozen
ducks and ‘a big bird with legs longer than my arm’ (Crane ?)
at 15-16,000 ft. strewn over the face of the Crevasse Glacier
and in the upper basins of most of the big glaciers he visited,
These high glaciers, therefore, must lie on the line of flight between
their breeding grounds in C. Asia and their winter habitat in
India. There are many lower passes over which the hirds
could fly across the main range, but they du not appear to use
them.

Donald has observed large numbers of migrating gecse
crossing the Himalayas at between io and 16,000 it. clevation,
anid cranes (or storks ?) flying at about 20,000 ft. over the range.

That birds can tly at immense heights if necessary with little
inconvenience from the rarified air is evident from the fact that
one of the Everest Expeditions met Crows and Mountain I‘inches
about their camp at 23,000 ft. and Griffon Vultures and
Lammergeier between 20 and 23 thousand, while Chonghs
followed the climbers, quite effortlessly and with capacity for
flight undiminished, even up to 27,000 ft., an altitude at which
the atmosphere is reduced to only one-third its supporting power !

Considering the immense scale on which bird migration takes
place in India the meagreness of our knowledge in every branch
of it is deplorable. A co-ordinated effort by observers and
students resident in the different parts of the country anc large-
scale ringing are the only ways in which the problem can be
satisfactorily tackled.

Those who would like to pursue the study of bird migration
literature further, will find the following books in English useful
and interesting :

1. The Migrations of Birds. By Alexander Wetmore

(Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A,
1927 $ 2.50).

2. Bird Migration. By A. Landsborough Thomson (H. F.
& G, Witherby, London, 1936. 5/-).

3. Problems of Bird Migration. By <A. J.andsborough
Thomson (H. F. & G. Witherby, London, 1926, 18/-)
which has been brought up to date by the author
in a paper published in the JBJS for July 1936 (pp.
472-530) entitled ‘ Recent Progress in the Study of
Bird Migration; A Review of the Literature 1926-
1936.”

There is a good deal of excellent literature in German,
including the quarterly magazine Der Vogelzug started in 1930,
which is—or was, since it is beyond the pale for the time being—
solely devoted ta the subject.
 

The Loriquet

201
91. The Loriquet
Coryilis vernalis (Sparrman).
Size: About that of the House-Sparrow,

Field Characters: A bright grass-green dainty little parrot,
with short square tail and rich crimson-red rump, A small
blue throat-patch in the male, absent in the female, Singly
or small parties, in orchards and wooded country.

An allied species C. beryllinus, with red crown, is confined
to Ceylon,

Distribution: Himalayis from Sikkim eastwards, Assim,
Burma, Andamans. $.-W. India from Cape Comorin to Bombay,
including Nilgiri and adjoining hills. Recently discovered in
the Eastern Ghats near Vizagapatam, ‘Two races are recognised
on depth of colouration, viz., the brighter N. India-Assam-Burnia
Tace vernalis, and the darker Malabar rubropygins. Resident,
but also marked scasoual local migrant.

Habits: The Loriquct inhabits well-woaded country both hill
and plain, and is fond of orchards and plantations, such as those
of rubber and cofiee. It is a marked seasonal migrant, its local
movements depending essentially upon the availability of a
food supply, that is, on the flowering of certain trees and the
tipening of the fruit of others. [ts diet consists mainly of fruits
and berries, but at certain times of the year the birds subsist
almost exclusively on flower nectar, that of various species of
the Coral tree (Evythrina) being especially favoured, On account
of their small size and the wonderfully obliterative effect. of
their colouration when clambering about amongst the foliage
of tall trees, the birds are seldom seen except when ilying
across from one tree to another. The flight is swift, consisting
of several rapid wing-strokes followed by a short pause and a
consequent slight dip. It is invariably accompanied by a
pleasant, sharp trisyllubic chee-chee-chee, repeated every cauple
of seconds or so. This note is ulso uttered whilst the bird climbs
about the twigs. ‘They roost at night hanging head downwards
from their perch in the manner of bats. Loriquets make engaging
pets and thrive in captivity on a dict of boiled rice and soft
pulpy fruits.

Nesting: The season ranges between January and April.
The nest-hole is excavated by the birds in some rotten branch
or tree-stump, fairly low down as a rule. Sometimes a natural
hollow is utilised. The eggs---usually three—are small white
roundish-ovals. The female is a close sitter and will often allaw
herself to be taken rather than forsake her eggs,
 

The Roller or Blue Jay

203
92. The Roller or Blue Jay

Coracias benghalensis (Linnaeus).
Size: About that of the Pigeon.

Field Characters: A striking Oxford-and-Cambridge-blue
bird with biggish head, heavy bill, rnfous-brown breast and blne
abdomen and undertail, The dark and pale blue portions of
the wings show up as brilliant bands in flight. Sexes alike.
Singly, perched on telegraph wires, Xc., in open country.

Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Empire
from the Hinnaélayan foothills south. Three races are recognised
on size and detaits of colouration, viz., the N. Indian benghalensis,
the South Indian-Ceylonese indices, and the Assim-Burma race
afinis. The boundary between 1 and 2 has been arbitrarily
fixed as the zoth N, lat, Resident, but to some extent also local
migrant.

Habits: The Roller is essentially a bird of open cultivated
country and light decidnous forest. It avoids heavy jungle.
It is of a tame and fearless disposition and affects the outskirts
of towns and villages, also freely entering gardens anc compounds,
The hirds are met with singly or in pairs perched on tree-stumps,
stakes, hedges or telegraph wires near cultivated ficlds, whenec
the surrounding country can be snurveyed to best advantage.
Tfrom here they swoop down to the ground now and again to
pick up an insect, returning with the morsel to the same perch
or flying leisurely across to another nearby where the victim is
battered and swallowed. ‘Their food consists of crickets, grass-
hoppers, beetles and other injurious insects, by the destruction
of which the birds do great service to agriculture. They also
eat mice, lizards and frogs. ‘They have a varicty of loud, raucous
calls and are particularly noisy and demonstrative during their
courtship displays. ln the conrse of this the male indulges in
a series of fantastic aerobatics, rocketing into the air, somer-
saulting and nose-diving to the accompaniment of harsh grating
screams and with his brilliant plumage flashing in the sun,

Nesting: The season over the greater part of its range is
between March and July. The nest is an untidy collection of
grass, straw, rags and rubbish in a natural hollow in a rotten
tree-trunk or branch, at modcrate heights, Sometimes a hole
in the wall of a building is utilised. A normal clutch consists
of four or five eggs-- pure white, glossy ind rather roundish
ovals,

204
 

The Common or Green Bee-eater

ZzO5
93. The Common or Green Bee-eater

Merops ortentalis Latham.
Size: About that of the Sparrow.
Field Characters: A slender bright green bird, tinged! with
reddish-brown on head and neek, with the central pair of tail
feathers prolonged into blunt pins, Slender, long, slightly
curved bill, Conspicuous black ' necklace.’ Sexes alike. Pairs
or parties, on telegraph wires, Xe¢., in open country.
Distribution: Vhronghout the Iidian Empire from abet
5,000 feet in the Llimalayads. Three races are recogniset mainly
au depth of colouration, . the paler Sind-Balfehistin race
biludsehicus, the darker Inctia-Ceylon orieutatis, and the more
ferruginous-headed Assam-Burma dfrdauis. Resident, but alse
seasonal local migrant,
Habits: The Green Bee-eater affects open country tin the
neighbourhood of cultivation, It is commonly found in forest
clearings and about villages and towns where it is partial fo
fallow land, lawns and aafddus. it his a miurked liking for the
gone immediately above the sandy beach along the coast,
Small loose parties may usnally be met with launching aerial
sallies after winged insects from a perch on seme telegraph
wire, fenee ar dry branch of a sinall tree, “The quarry is snipped
upinnid-air as the bird swoops at it gracedully and circles bitck
on out stretched motionless wings to its perch, where it is
battered and swallowed. The notes constimtly uttered: ; a
pleasant #/, fit or trilly dree-éree-trer Vike the jinghug af tiny
hawk-hells, Large numbers assemble to roost every evening in
selected bushy trees. Great noise and bustle prevails before the
birds finally setile in for the uight. Every vow and again (he
entire concourse suddenly tlies out in a confused rabble, circling
round the tree to the accompaniment of much esxicted tritling,
iid gradually re-settles. Vhey are late risers and nity
frequently be seen huddled together in little groups along fhe
branches, heads tucked away under their wings and fast asleep,
till after the sun is well up. Their food consists of dragontlies,
‘iplerous and hymenopterous insects, ane the birds are destruc-
tive to honey bees.
Nesting: The principal breeding months are from Felrnary
to May. Vhe birds usually nest in colonies, excaviuting: horizontal
tunnels abont 14” in diameter, and from a foot to six feet long,
in the sides of carth banks, mounds, dry nulkihs, burrow. pits
and the like. In siundy soil the tamnels are often driven obliquely
intu more or less flit ground, They expand at their extremity
into an unlined nest-chamber wbout 5 inches across. The exes
| to F- are pure white, roundish ovals. Goth sexes share in
excavating the nest-tunnels and feeding the young,

 

 

 

   

 

 

 

206
 

Middle ane i

The Blue-tailed Bee-eater

207
94- The Blue-tailed Bee-eater
Merops superciliosus Linnaeus.
Size; About that of the Bulbul.

Field Characters: Similar in general effeet to the Common
Bee-eater, Distinguishable by its larger size,  greenish-blue
tail including the pin feathers, black sttipe through the eyes,
yellow throat and chestuut npper breast. Sexes alike, Small
flocks, in open and lightly wooded country.

Distribution: General but local throughout India, Barma
and Ceylon from about 3,000 feet in the Uimalayan foothills,
Two races uccur within our limits, and beyond, «iffereutiated on
details of colouration, viz, the Sind-Punjab-hajpitina race
persicus, and the all-India-Burma-Ceylon javanicus. Resident,
but partially also local migrant.

Habits; The Blue-tailed Bee-cater inhibits more or less the
same type of open cultivated country as the foregoing species,
but it delinitely prefers better wooded tracts and the neighbour:
hood of jheels and rivers. Its flight is swifter and the swoops
after winged insects more graceful ; its call notes f-tew 2 te-tew ?
are deepet and easily distinguishable from those of the Green
Bee-eater, Otherwise, in food and habits, there is no appreciable
difference between the two species.

Nesting: The season ranges between March and Juue. ‘The
birds nest in colowies - occasionally ino association with Bank
Mynas-- driving horizontal tunnels into the carthy or sandy
banks of rivers and streams. These are abont 2 inches in
diameter and seldom under 4 feet long. The tunnel terminates
in a rounded nest-chambet which is sometimes spursely lined
with grass and feathers, The eggs— four to seven in number
are pure white, roundish ovals, Both sexes share in excavating
the nest-tunnel, incubation (?) and feeding the young.

208
 

The Pied Kingfisher
209
. ’

95. The Pied Kingfisher

Cervle rudis (Linnaeus).

Size: Between the Myna and the Pigeon.
Field Characters: A speckled and barred, black and-white
kingfisher with the typical stout) dagger-shaped bill. ‘The
female ditters in details, but is on the whole like the male. Singly
or pairs, by streams and tanks, perched on rocks or poised hover-
img above the water.
Distribution: Throughout the plains of India, Burma and
Ceylon the race /rucomelaniva occurs, except in ‘Travancore to
which is confined the much darker race ¢racuncorensis.

The Himalayan Pied Winglisher (Cervle digabris), a larger
species with a prominent crest, replaces it above about 2,500 fect
in the Himaliyas.

Habits: The Pied Kingfisher frequents rivers, jheels, back-
waters, tidal creeks and sometimes even the seashore. Ht goes
aliaut singly or in pairs and family parties of oor 5. The bird
may commonly be seen perched on a fuvonrite rock or fishing
stake near the water, flicking up its taiband bobbing its head now
and again, Hs sharp cheery notes chirrik, chirrik, uttered on
the wing, are unmistakable when once heard. The most) cha-
racteristic thing abont the Pied WNingtisher, however, is its
spectacular mode of hunting. Flying over the water, its attention
is unceasingly directed towards any fish that may venture near
the surface. Immediately a shoal is sighted the bird halts dead
in its light and remains poised over the spot on hovering wings.
The stance now assumed by the body is as though the bird were
standing on its tail, with the Jong, compressed bill pointing
intently downward. As soo as an unwary fish strivs within
striking depth, the bird closes its wings and fram a height af 15 to
30 feet hurls itself like a bolt npow it with unerring aim, often
hecoming completely submerged in the water. It presently
Teappears, however, with the quarry in its bil, and tlies att toa
neighbouring perch where it is battered to death and swallowed
entire. Its food consists inainiy of fish, but tadpoles, frops and
aquatic insects are also eaten,

Nesting: Vhe season is between October and May and
frequently two successive broods are reared. UVorizontal tunnels
from 3 to 6 feet long are excavated in the precipitous mud banks
of streams and rivers, They are about 3 inches in diameter and
terminate in a widened nest-chamber whicl is usually unlined,
but almost invariably littered with cast-up fish hones. The
normal clutch cousists of five or six eggs, pure white roundish
ovals of a glossy texture. Both sexes share in excavating the
Nest-tunnel, incubation (?) and feeding the young.

  

  
 

The Common Kingfisher

air
96. The Common Kingfisher
Aleedo al/his (Linuacus).

Size: About that of the Honse-Sparrow, witha short stumpy
tail and a long, straight pointed bill.
Field Characters: A dapper blue and green little kingfisher,
with deep rust coloured underparts. Sexes alike. Singly, by
stream, ‘tank or puddle; perched oniun overhanging braneh or
flying swiftly near the surface.
Distribution: Throughout India, Burma and Ceylon and
extending beyond. Three races uccur within our limits, cifler-
entiated on size and details of colouration, eiz., the lurgest and
palest Balachistan-Sind-Punjals- Kashmir race padlast?, the inter-
mediate N. India-Assani-Burma beagadensis, and the smattest and
darkest S. India-Ceylon race faprobana,
Habits: This little kingfisher is commonly found by streams,
village tanks, roadside puddles, Autcha wells, brackish backwaters
and even at pools left by the receding tide on the rocky seashore,
It avoids forest and torrential hill streams. The bird is normiully
seen singly, perched on some favourite stake or stone standing in
water, or on an overluumping brane¢l: or reed stem, keeping a look
out for prey sailing past or rising uear the surface. Prom time
to time it bobs its head, turning it from side to side, and jorks its
stub tail to the accumpaniment of little subdued c/icés. Lt darts
swifth: over the water from one part of the stream or tank to
another, uttering a sharp chi-chee, chi-chee. Now and again it will
suddenly drop from its perch, bill foremost, aud disappear with a
splash below the surface, presently to emerge with a small fish
held crosswise in its bill, With this, it usually dashes off at top
speed to another perch some distance away where the quiurry is
battered to pulp and swallowed, head first. Occasionally it also
hovers over the water and plunges in after prey in the manner of
the Pied Kingtisher.

lts diet consists of small fish, tadpoles, water beetles and
their larvae, and other aquatic insects.
Nesting: The nsual months are from March to June.
Favourite sites are the banks of streams, tanks and ditclies into
which are burrowed horizontal tunnels about 2 inches in dia-
meter and from a foot to 4 fect in length, terminating in @ widened
vest chamber 5 or 6 inches acrass. An evil stench invariably
pervades the abodc, caused Ivy the indiscriminate litter of fish
benes and the remains of hard-shelled insects disgorged by the
birds. The normal clutch consists of five ta seven eggs—pure
white, roundish ovals with a high gloss. Both sexes shure in
excavating the nest-tunnel, incubation and feeding the young.
 

The White-breasted Kingfisher

213
97- The White-breasted Kingfisher

Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus).
Size: Belween the Ayna and the Pigeon.

Field Characters: <A brilliant turquoise-blue kingfisher with
deep chocolate-brown head, neck and underparts, a conspicuous
white ‘shirt fronl’? and Jong, heavy, pointed red bill A] white
wing-patch noticeable in flight. Sexes alike. Singly, iu culti-
vated and wooded conntry both near und away from water,

Distribution: Phuins and lower hills throughout the Tndian
Empire cand extending hevond, cast and west. Three races
concern us, ditferentiated ou details of size and colouration, 7s. 2
fitsca which oceupies Ceylon and the heavy rainfall zone of S. WwW.
India, saayvrrensis inhabiting the rest of Undia and Burma, and
saturaQor contined to the Andamans,

 

Habits: ‘his is perhaps the most familiar of our kinglishers,
It is usually met with singly in the neighbourhood of imuidited
pactdy-fields, ponds, puddles, Adécha wells and on the sandy
seashore, both near and away frou lumen habitations.  Uut ik
is by no means so closely dependent on the presence of water lor
its sustemmunce as its other relatives are. Frequeutly if miuay be
found considerable distances awiey from it, right dn the midst of
forest where it feeds on carthworms, liviards, grasshoppers and
other insects occasionally even capturing alice and young birds.
From a favourite perch on some bare branch ot telegraph wire,
which it ocenpies day after day and whence it can survey the
country around, the bird hirls itself down on creeping prey and
fies off with it te another perch nearby where the victim is
battered and swallowed. tts cml or *seng' is ae loud. et
uninusical, chattering scream uttered from die top ofa cul (ree
or some. other exposed situatian. It ends in a detached larsh
undertone Hike the pene? of a snipe, audible only at short. riage.
Besides this it bas aloud cickling call usimdly attered in Might,

 

  

 

 

 

 

 

Nesting: The season ranges principally between March and
July. The nest-tunnel, as with other kingfishers, is dug hori-
zontally into the side of an earth cutting or bank, Jt is about
24 inches in diameter and often up to @ or 7 feel long, terminating
ii a spacious egg-chamber 8 or y inches across, The vernal
clutch consists of four to seven eggs white and spherieal, Both
sexes share in excavating the nest-tunnel, incubation (4) and
feeding the young.

214
 

Md 7

* ae all, Bays *
a ae el

 

The Common Grey Hornbill
215
98. The Common Grey Hornbill
Tockus birosiris (Scopoli).

Size: That of the Pariah Kite.

Field Characters: A chinsy, slaty-grey bird with an
enormous blick-and white curved bill surmounted by a peculiar
protuberance or casque. Tail long and graduated. Sexes atike.
Small parties, in lightly wacded country and groves of ancient
trees.

In the heavy rainfall area of the Makibar Coast (Western
Ghats) north to Bombay, it is replaced by an alhed species the
Malabar Grey Hornbill (7. grisens) which lacks the casque abave
the bill.

Distribution: ‘Throughout India - excepting the  N.-W.EF,
Province, Sind, Punjab and parts of Rajpiitana. Absent in
Assam, Burina anc Ceylon,

Habits: The Grey Uornbill inhabits open, wooded — plains
country and deciduous forest. HC is commonly found in groves
of ancient mango, Banyan and Peepat trees in the vicinity or
towns and villages, and freely enters well-wooded gardens and
compounds. ft is exclusively arboreal and met with in pairs of
family parties of 5 or 6 birds which fly across front one tig-laden
Peepal or Banyan tree to another in follow -my-leader fashion,
Where food is plentiful, large numbers often collect, associating
with green pigeons, mynas, bulbuls and other (ragivarocus birds.
The flight, typical of the hornbills, is kvboured, undulating and
noisy, consisting of a few rapid wing-strokes followed Iyy an
interval of gliding, It has a loud cackling cry A-A-k kde, und a
variety of squealing and chattering conversational notes. A
shrill alarm whistle wéeee is uttered to iapprise the company of
suspected canger. Its «het consists mainly of figs of Banyan,
Peepal and the various other species of Kies, but barge insects
and lizards are also caten,

Nesting : The season is principally between March and June.
The hornbills as a group are remarkable for their curious nesting
habits. A natural hollow is selected in some old tree trunk,
usually fairly high up. Within this the femate iniprisons herself,
using the flat sides of her bill as trowel to plaster up the entrance
with her droppings which harden to the consistency of cement.
Only a narrow shit is teft through which the cock assiduously feeds
her throughout the incubation period, After the young are
hatched out, the hen emerges from her self-imposed confinement,
the wall is built up again, and thencefurward she assists ler mate
in feecing the young. The same nest-site is used for several
successive seasons. The eggs. two or three in vumber —-are dul,
glossless white.

    

 

 

216
 

The Hoopoe

217
99. The Hoopoe

Cpupa epops Linnaeus.
Size: Nbont that of the Myna.
Field Characters: A fawn coloured bird) with) black-and-winte
zebra. markings on back, wings and tail; a conspicuous fan-shaped

crest and Jong, slender, slightly curved bill, Sexes alike. Singly or
pairs, usually on the ground in lightly wooded country.

 

  

 

 

Distribution: Vractically throughout the Indian Empire and
beyond, both east and west. ‘Three races chiefly concern ns, diltering
in details of size and colouration, ez.: the Ceylon aud all-bidia
ceylunens the Ponjib-N-WwS orfentidis, aun the Assiinn Buroia
longirestris. A) fourth race the typical, European epo, visits
XN. India diving winter, Orientafis also spreads ont considerably: ab
that season se that we then have rather a confused jumble af races im
the peninsubl

  

  

  

  
  

 

 

Habits: The Hoopee is a bird of open country, plains as well as hills
upto about 5,000 feet. Tt is fond of kiwns, gardens and groves in
ad about towns aul vilkiw Scattered) pairs and kamily parties of
four or tive: bire: met with, feeding exclusively on the
grannd, probing inte the soit and amongst the fallen leaves with) bill
partly epen like forceps. Ho owalks and rus on its short legs with a

 
 
    
    

 

 

 
 
 

 

 

quia ke bat somewhat waddling gait. When digging, the crest) is
depressed and projects in a point behind the head suggestive ot a
ininiature pickaxe, When the bird) is akirmed ar escited, (he crest

 

is quickly ereeted and opened fanwise. Pe Mies off in an undanlating,
undecided sort of way to resettle af seme distance whereupon the
crest is again raised. “The call is a soft and imusieal, but penetrating,
hea-pu, or hoo-po-pa repeated severih tines ane offen intermittently:
for over 10 minutes at a stretch. When calling froma branch the
bird low and bobs its head se Chat the bill Hes idmost Mat against
the breast. the tail at the same time being depressed and turned: in
under the perch as if in an etert to mike both ends meri) Mt other
times the lead is jerked forward at cach successive call as if ing,
and the crest raised and lowered from: time to time. Besides this
call, it has a variety of liarsh sululued caws and wheezy chuckle Its
diet consists of insects, grubs and pupa, i :
by virtue of the vast numbers of in

 

 

     

 

 
 
  

   

ft pests it destroys,

 

Nesting: The season ranges between February and Npril \ hole
in a wall, roof, under caves or ina rotten branch or stump is selected
and Hned untidily with rags, hair, wool, straw amd rubbish. “Phe
normal eluteh consists of § or 6 eges, white when fresh but becom
discoloured as incubation prog The femate is a close sitter and
seldom leaves the nest, being zealously ted by her mate all through
this period, ‘The nest is notorious for the mass of filtli that aceuniulates
there, and for the abominable stench it emits. Both sexes shire in
feeding the young.

 

   

 

 

218
 
  

1. The Palm-Swift
(Description on next page.)
2. The House-Swift

219
too. The House-Swift
Micropus affinis (Gray).

Size: Smaller than the Sparrow, but with longer, uarrower
wings,
Field Characters: A smoky-black little bird with white
throat, white rump and short square tail. Sexes alike. Flying
about gregariously near human hitbitations.
Distribution: Inexplicably patehy, but practically through-
out the Indian Empire from about 6,000 fect in the Himalay4s.
Two races may be definitely recognised on details of size and
colouration, viz., the square-tailed Indian affiiis, and the slightly
fork-tailed AssAm-Burma race subfuycatus, Ceylon and Travan-
eore birds are very dark.
Habits: The House-Swift is commonly found in the neighbour-
hood af human habitations beth occupied and deserted, in
the plains as well as hills. Ancient forts, and ruined mosques
and buildings seldom fail to attract the birds. ‘They are seen
ilying about gregariously, hawking tiny winged insects and utter-
ing their merry twittering sereams. The capture of prey on
the wing is facilitated by their extraordinarily widened gapes.
Although resembling, the swallows in general effect und feeding
habits, swifts differ from them markedly in structure, especially
in the arrangement of their toes all four of which are forwardly
directed and preclude the possibility of the birds perching in
the normal way. Ilence, a swift will never be seen perched
ona telegraph wire. Their wings are long and narrow enabling
the birds to fly almost incessantly and at great speed. When
clinging to some rough surface, as a wall or rock, the tips of the
folded wigs cross each other and project far beyond the tail.
Large disorderly gatherings of House-Swifts may commanly
be seen in the evenings wheeling around or ‘ balling” high
up in the air, uttering shrill joyous twittering screams and
obvionsly disporting themselves.
Nesting: The season is between February and September ;
two successive broods are frequently reared. The birds build
in colonies, plastering the nests helter-skelter along the angle
of the wall and ceiling in buildings and porches, even in the
midst of noisy bazaars, The nests are round untidy cups made
entirely of feathers, straw, etc., cemented together with the birds’
saliva, The entrance hole is often merely a slit between the
wall and the nest. The same site und nests—repaired if necessary
—are used for many years in succession if the birds are left
anmolested. The normal clutch consists of 2 to 4 eggs, pure
white longish ovals, Both sexes share in building the nest
and feeding the young.

220
“satoeds siyy Jo syuase ux) Rutfjod-sso39 queqodun ysour ey} JsBuawe aie sprig asauL
*(pupsyshaq) SUTOSSOTY [BJOF) UO JaTQqeg oun Y

221

 
101. The Palm-Swift
Cypsiurus parvus (Licht.)

Size: Plate on previous page. Smaller than the Sparrow;
considerably slenderer and with long narrow wings.

Field Characters: A slim plain sooty-grey bird, with thin
deeply forked tail. Sexes alike. Flying about gregariously
over open conntry dotted with Palmyra palms.

Distribution; All India except the Punjib and Sind ; Ceylon,
Assim, Burma, and beyond—wherever the dd or Palmyra
palm (Borassus flabelliformis) occurs, with which species its
range is coincident. Two races are recognised on details of
size and colouration, vis., the India-Ceylon batassiensis, and
the Assim-Burma infumatus.

Habits: The Palm-Swift is typically a bird of open plains
country and is inseparable from the Tad palm. The precise factors
that determine this symbiosis have not as yet been ascertained,
but the rigid folds and furrows of the palm leaf certainly provide
it with eminently suitable roosting and nesting sites. The birds
spend their time gregariously hawking tiny winged insects in the
vicinity of the palms, often flying quite low, turning and twisting
in the air on their long narrow wings to the constant accompani-
ment of their shrill, joyous triple note f#-#-ice, The deep cleft
or fork in the tail is particularly noticeable when the bird wheels
in its flight.

Nesting: The season varies in the different parts of its range
to cover the entire year. The nest is a tiny half-saucer, about
2 inches from side to side, of feathers and vegetable down agglu-
tinated with the bird’s saliva and attached in a fold or furrow
on the underside of a palmyra leaf. Owing to its situation
and diminutive size, it is usually invisible from the ground.

The eggs-—two or three in number—are pure white, long, pointed
ovals.

The Assam-Burma race (C. p. infumatus) sometimes attaches

its nest to the palm leaf thatching of huts in the Garo and
Naga Hills.

222
 

The Common Indian Nightjar

223
102. The Common Indian Nightjar
Caprimulgus asiatiens Latham.

Size: About that of the Myna.

Field Characters: A soft-plumaged grey, brown, buff and
‘fulvous bird mottled and black-streaked above, forming a com-
plicated camouflaging pattern. White patches on wing con-
spicnous in flight. Sexes alike. Singly, in scrub country, crouch-
ing on ground by day, hawking insects at dusk.

Several other species of Nightjars are found within our
limits, superficially resembling one another and difficult to
differentiate in the field except by a study of their call notes.
They all have very short legs, large owl-like head with large
shiny eyes and enormously widened gapes fringed with coarse,
strong bristles.

Distribution: Practically throughout India, Assim, Burma
and Ceylon. - Ceylon birds are smaller in size than the Indian
asiaticus, and recognised as the insular race minor, Resident,
but partly also local migrant.
Habits: The Common Indian Nightjar frequents scrub and
stony country, dry nullahs, compounds and groves in the neigh-
bourhood of cultivation, and commonly about towns and villages.
It is entirely crepusenlar and nocturnal in habits resting during
the day on the ground nnder shelter of some bush, and emerging
at dusk to feed. Occasionally it also squats on the low bough
of a tree, not perching crosswise as most birds do, but along
its length. It is active all through the night hawking winged
insects. The flight is peculiarly moth-like, noiseless and wander-
ing, but the bird can turn and twist in the air to avoid obstacles
with amazing dexterity——now circling, now flapping, now sailing.
Its familiar call chith-chuk-chuk-chuk-r-r-r has been well likened
to the sound of a stone gliding over a frozen pond. It is uttered
from the ground or from the top of a stump or stone. Two
birds, some distance apart, will frequently engage in a duet,
answering each other for considerable periods, A low chik-chihk
is sometimes heard on the wing. These birds are fond af
squatting on country roads after dusk—their eyes gleaming red
in the beam of the headlights of an oncoming car—and adept
at dodging clear when within an ace of being run over. Their
food consists of beetles, moths and other insects captured on
the wing.
Nesting: ‘The season is not well defined anywhere, but most
eggs are fonnd between February and September. No nest
is made, the eggs—usually two—being laid on the bare ground
in thin bamboo forest or open country with bush cover, even
_in large jungly compounds in cities. They are long, cylindrical
ovals, pale pink to deep salmon in colour spotted and blotched
with reddish-brown and inky-purple.

224
 

The Barn or Screech Owl

225
103. The Barn or Screech Owl
Tyto alba (Scopoli).
Size: About that of the Jungle-Crow.

Fieid Characters: <A typical owl with large round head and a
conspicuous ruff of stiff feathers surrounding a white mankey-like
facial disc. Golden-but! above, silky white helew. Sexes alike.
Singly, on and about buildings, especially ruined and deserted
Nocturnal,

Distribution: Ceylon and the whole of india, Assam and Buri.
The pr atus of the two races oceurring within eur continental
limits, javanica and stertens, has not been determined. “The
Andamans race deroepstarffi, is darker and smialer than Indian birds
The Barn Owl has an almost world-wide geographical range.
Habits: The Barn or Screech Owl is inseparable from the
haunts of Man. Ruins on the site of ancient cities, old tombs,
forts and other buildings invariably have their resident population
of these birds. It is pnrely nocturnal in habits and greatly
inconvenienced by sunlight. It retires during the day 10 the
seclusion of some dark hole or niche, where it spends the time
standing upright and dozing. Favonrite daytime retreats are
oecupied from year’s end to year’s end, and if one occupant is
killed his place is soon taken up by another. At dusk the bird
issues forth, and it may then be seen Iying in its Gharacteristic
ghost-like manner fron one roof or building to another, often aver
busy thoroughfares and above the full blaze of a city's lumina
tion. Its voice, heard after dark, is a mixture of harsh discordint
screams, and weird snoring and hissing notes. lt is eerie and
unpleasant, and no doubt responsilie for many of the supersti
tions prevalent in India which brand the ow] as a bird of ill omen.
Inspite of this, however, the Barn Owl is a highly desirable
species to have about farm buildings and grain stares.  }t feeds
aimost exclusively on rats and mice, and acts as an important
check upon the increase of these destructive vermin. It is alsa
of the greatest benefit to agriculture in keeping field mice noder
control, The radents are swallowed entire, their indigestible
portions such as hair and bones, being subsequently cast up from
the mouth in the form of pellets. The flesh and bones of the
Barn Owl are highly prized by quacks and medicine-men as
charms, and as a cure for rheumatism and paralysis.

Nesting: J’ractically all the year. Holes and niches in ruined
walls or the space between the ceiling and roof of a dwelling
honse, sparsely lined with straw, twigs and rags, serve as nest,
Same site used in suceessive seasons. Eges four to seven -—
mooth, white, roundish.

 

  

 

226
 

The Brown Fish-Owl

_ 227
104. The Brown Fish-Owl

Ketupa zeylonensis (Gmelin).

Size: About that of the Pariah Kite.

Field Characters: A large heavy brown owl, the paler
underparts with dark vertical streaks, especially about the breast.
Feather-tufts, looking like long ears, projecting above tlie head.
Large, round, yellow forwardly directed eyes. Unfeathered legs.
Sexes alike. Singly, at dusk in wooded country near water.
Distribution: Throughout India, Burma and Ceylon—and
beyond, both east and west. The race /eschenawiti occupies the
whole of our area except Ceylon where the small aud dark typical
zeylonensis is the representative form.

Habits: The Brown Fish-Owl is an inhabitant of well-wooded
tracts abounding in rocky ravines, and broken ground in the
neighbourhood of jheels, streams and nullahs. It is commonly
found on tree-girt outskirts af villages. During the day it retires
to the shelter of some favourite bamboo clump or large leafy tree,
emerging soon after sundown heralded by its distinctive deep and
hollow moaning call boovi-o-boom which resounds at intervals
through the stillness of the forest with a peculiar ventriloquistic
quality. This weird-and ghonlish boom heard suddenly in the
gloaming for the first time, produces an undescribably eerie effect.
At dusk the bird takes up a perch on some branch or rock near
or overhanging water, sitting bolt upright, and keeps a sharp
look-out for fish rising near the surface. It may then also be
seen flying up and down, often almost skimming the water. It
delights in regular baths, wading into the shallows and shuffling
itself in the usual manner of birds, drying and carefully preening
itself afterwards. Its food consists mainly of fish and crabs, but
small mammals, birds and reptiles are also devoured, and a pair
have even been observed feeding on the putrefying carcase of a
crocodile, .

Nesting: The season varies according to locality, but is
principally between December and March. The nest, which is
sometimes composed of a few twigs and at others has no extra-
neous material, is in a natural hollow in the stump or bough of an
ancient mango or peepal tree, on a ledge ar in the cleft of a rocky
bank, at varying heights from the ground, but never far from
water. Occasionally an old eagle’s nest is used. The eggs—
one or two in number—are white, roundish and with a slightly
glossed though pitted texture. The vicinity of the nest is
invariably bestrewn with cast up pellets and remains of birds
and other small animals. The female is a close sitter and when
approached on her nest, snaps her mandibles and hisses in a
torbidding manner.

228
 

The Indian Great Horned-Owl

229
105. The Indian Great Horned-Owl

Bubo bubo (Linnaeus).
Size: About that of the Pariah Kite.
Fieid Characters. A large dark brown owl, streaked and
mottled with buff and black, with two conspicuous black aigrettes
or ‘horns’ above the head. Rather like the Fish-Owl in general
effect, but with the legs fully covered with fulvous feathers.
Sexes alike. Singly or pairs, in wooded rocky ravines and ancient
groves. Mainly nocturnal.
Distribution: The race bexgaiensis ranges throughout India,
Assim and Burma, but not Ceylon. There is considerable
variation in the size and colouration of the birds from north to
south, This genus of Horned-Owls has practically a world-wide
distribution.
Habits: The Great Horned-Owl is a fairly common species in
the Indian plains, and in portions of Kashmir it is found up to
about 6,000 feet elevation. It inhabits well-wooded, bunt open
and cultivated country and avoids heavy forest. Its favourite
haunts are low bush-covered rocky hills and ravines and the cliff
banks of rivers and streams. Here it rests during the day on the
ground under the shelter of a bush or on some rocky projection.
Where these conditions are lacking—amnd especially im the neigh-
bourhood of villages-—it affects groves of ancient thickly foliaged
trees. It is by no moans so completely nocturnal as the lish-
Owl and may frequently be seen on the move till after the sun is
well up, with little apparent discomfort. The birds emerge from
their daytime retreats soon after sunset with their deep, soleusn,
resounding call buw-b¢ (2nd syttable much prolonged) which, while
not really loud, has a curious penetrating quality. They may
then be seen perched on the top of some boulder, whence they
glide off effortlessly on outstretched wings over great distances
to their accustomed feeding grounds. Besides these calls, they
have a variety of growls and hisses expressive of excitement or
emotion. Their food consists of small mammals, birds, lizards
and other reptiles-—also large insects, and occasionally fish and
crabs, Fiekt rats and mice form a considerable proportion of
their diet in agricultural areas. The Horned-Owls act as a
constant check on these fecund and destructive rodents, and are
therefore of great economic value,
Nesting: The season is from about November to April. No
nest is made, the eggs being usually laid on the bare soil in natural
recesses in earth banks, on ledges of cliffs overhanging water, or
even on level ground under the shelter of some bush. The normal
clutch consists of three or four eggs—white in colour with a faint
creamy tinge. They are bread roundish ovals of a fine and
slossy texture.

230
 

The Spotted Owlet

231
106. The Spotted Owlet

Athene brame (Temminck).

Size: About that of the Myna,

Field Characters: A squat, white-spotted — greyish-brown
little owl, with typical large ronnd head and forwardly directed,
staring yellow eyes. Sexes alike, Pairs or family parties, about
villages, ruins, and in groves of large trees, Chietly crepuscular
and nocturnal.

Distribution: Resident throughout India, Assim and Burma,
but not Ceylon. Three races are recognised on size and depths
of colouration, viz., the Seuth Indian byaima, the North India-
Assim race indica, and the Burmese pulchra. The boundary
between x and 2 has been arbitrarily fixed as the zoth N, latitude.
Habits: This little bird is the commonest ani most familiar of
our owls, It affects every type of conntry in the plains and foot-
hills except heavy forest, and is particularly abundant in the
neighbourhood of human habitations. It is fearless and con-
fiding and regards Man with complete unconcern, In mauy
localities almost every ancient tamarind, banyan or mango tree
holds its resident pair or two of these owlets, and one has but to
tap on the trunk to bring forth an enquiriug little face to the
entrance of a hollow, or to dislodge a pair sitting huddled together
on some secluded branch. The birds often fly out fussily to a
neighbouring branch when the tree is approached, whence they
bob and stare at the intruder in clownish fashion. [¢t is largely
of crepuscular and nocturnal habits, perhaps not so much because
of intolerance to sunlight—since it is often abroad and eveu
hunting at mid-day—-but on account of the persecution and
chivvying it is invariably subjected to by other birds immediately
it shows itself. At dusk these owlets may be seen perched on
fence-posts, telegraph wires and the like, pouncing from time to
time upon some unwary insect on the ground, or flying across
noiselessly {rom one perch to another. Occasionally it launches
ungainly aerial sallies after winged termites capturing them in
its claws, and it will sometimes even hover clumsily like a kestrel
to espy creeping prey. Its food consists mainly of beetles and
other insects, but small mice, birds and lizards are also taken.
-They are noisy birds and have a large variety of harsh chattering,
squabbling and chuckling notes, two individuals frequently
combining in a duet.

Nesting: The season ranges between Nuvember and April.
The eggs are laid in hollows in trees, or in holes in walls, or
between the ceiling and roof of deserted] as well as occupied
dwellings. The hollows are sometimes sparsely lined with grass,
teow and feathers. The eggs—three or four—are white roundish
ovals, Both sexes share in lining the nest, incubation and care
of the young.

232
 

The Black, Pondicherry or King Vulture
233
107. The Black, Pondicherry or

King Vulture

Sarcogyps calvus (Scopoli).
Size: About that of the Peacock, minus the train.
Field Characters : The black plumage and conspicuous white
patches near the crop and on upper thighs serve to distinguish
this vulture at a glance, even in high overhead flight when,
moreover, a whitish band across the underside of the wings is
prominent. The deep yellowish-red head, neck and legs further
confirm its identity. Sexes alike.
Distribution : ‘Throughout India (from abont 5,000 feet in
the Himalayas ) and Bunna, but net Cevlon,
Habits : The Wing Vulture is a bird of open lightly wooded
and cultivated country and as a role avoids both deuse forest
and barren desert tracts. Unlike inost of its congeners it is
not strictly gregarious, and though generally distributed, is
nowhere particularly abundant. Only solitary birds or pairs
are ordinarily seen, perched on an exposed tree-top or soaring
high up in the air, Even at carcases, seldom more than a conple
are present amongst the secthing rabble of White-backs and other
species that collect to feast. Very rarely, however, gatherings
of 20 or 30 birds: may be met with. The Wing Vulture is so
nanied on the strength of a reputation for being pugnacions,
bold and overbearing, of inspiring awe amongst its confreres
and thus monopolising a carcase until it has had its 11 of
the choicest tit-bits. This reputation is, however, il-deserved
for usually—at any rate— it may be marked out as the tinridest
member of the vulture gatherings at a carcas It keeps itself
aloof of the scrimmage, surreptitiously ventoring forward pow
and again in obvious fear and trembling to tug at a gobbet, and
withdrawing hurriedly when overwhelmed by the press. It is
a powerlul bird and able to hit itself off the ground by a few
strokes of its wings. Even when fully gorged, it is not obliged
to hop along before taking off as the other vultures do, In
sailing flight the outstretched wings ate held well above the plane
of the body in a wide V.
Nesting : The season is principally from December to April.
The nest is a massive platform of twigs placed on the top ol
some large tree, 30 to go feet from the ground, often near a village.
Where suitable trees are scarce, it builds on bushes, 6 to 10
feet high, on stony hillsides. The same nest or site is used year
after year. It is untidily lined with straw and leaves. Only a
single egg is laid, white in colour, but becoming considerably
stained and discoloured during incubation. It is roundish-oval
in shape, strong-shelled and of a fine textnte. Incubation takes
abent 45 days. Both sexes share in building the nest, incubation
and feeding the young,

 
 

  

234
 

The White-backed or Bengal Vulture
235
108. The White-backed or Bengal Vulture

Psendogyps bengalensis (Gmelin).
Size: About that of the Peacock minus the train,

Field Characters: A heavy, dirty Mackish-brown vulture
with naked head and neck. At rest the white back is conspicuous,
In overhead flight a whitish band stretching along the underside
of the wings, usnally serves as recognition mark. Sexes alike.
Distribution : Throughout India, Assim and Burma. Nat
found in Ceylon,

Habits : ‘fhe White-back is the commonest vulture of the
Indian plains and is met with everywhere, regardless of the
nature of the country, except in dense humid forest. Small
parties are seen perched on bare tree-taps or palms, or sailing
majestically in wide circles, quartering the heavens, for hours
en-end and scanning the gronnd below for food. The leaves
wand gronnd underneath favonrite perches and reosts soon become
besmirched with the birds’ croppings and present a bedrageledt
whitewashed appearunce. Though a positively repulsive creatnre
at close quarters, a vulture gliding effortless in the sky looks the
very embadiment.of graceful motion,

As scavengers, vultures are of the greatest usefulness to
Man. Their eyesight is remarkably keen, and large numbers
will gather at a carcuse from nowhere within an incredibly short
time. The speed and thoroughness with which a company will
dispose of a bullock or other large animal dumped in the precincts
of a village—which would otherwise befoul the air and) breed
pestilenee--is astounding, These gruesome obsequies are
attended by an incessant jostling and bickering among the birds,
and by much harsh, unpleasant screeching and hissing as one bird
tries te vust another from a coveted vantage point at the feast
or to deprive it of a gobbet of flesh. The combatants spread
their wings and prance wround ludicrously, tugging and pulling
at the morsel from either end. They sometimes gorge them-
selves to such an extent that they become incapable of ilight
and are compelled to pass the night on the ground.

Nesting : ‘The season is principally from October to March.
The nest is a large untidy platform of twigs lined with green
leaves, on the top of a Banyan, Peepal or similar tree, near a
village or on the roadside. Several nests are often built on the
same tree or on adjacent ones. <A single egg is laid, white in
colour, occasionally speckled and spotted with reddish-brown,
It is thick-shelled and glossless. Both sexes share in building
the nest, incubation and care of the young, which are fed on
tegurgitated gobbets of flesh. Incubation takes about 45 days,

 

 

236
 

The White Scavenger Vulture or Pharaoh’s Chicken
, 237
109. The White Scavenger Vulture or
Phataoh’s Chicken

Neophron percnopterus (Linnaeus).

Size: That of the Pariah Kite.

Field Characters: <A dirty-white kitelike bird with black wing-
quills and naked yellow head and bill. Immature differs {rom adult
(illustrated) in being brown, rather like the Kite. In tlight the wedge-
shaped tail distinguishes it from Kites, Miagies aud other Vultures.
Sexes alike. Singly or twos and threes, in open country, about human
habitations.

Distribution: Throughout India and rarely in Ceylon, but not in
Assim or Burma. Two races are recognised on size and details of
colouration, viz., the larger Egyptian (typical) percnopterus which
extends into N.-W, India, Sind and the Punjib, and the smaller Indian
race ginginianus occupying the rest of the country.

Habits: The White Scavenger Vufgure is a common and abundart
species affecting open country, exc@pt the wettest areas, invariably
in the neighbourhood of the haunts of Man whether town, village,
detached rural homestead or ‘shifting encampment of nomadic
herdsmen. Here it is seen soaring gracefully overhead or perched on
niounds, ruined buildings and the like, or stalking about on the ground
with a ludicrous high-stepping, waddling gait rather like the German
‘ goose-step.’ The body is carried more or less horizontally like a
duck’s. It is not gregarious, but numbers collect where prospects of
food are promising, often associating with kites, crows and other
vultures. Inspite of its shabby and repulsive appearance and the
universal disgust in which it is held, this vulture is a useful and eflicient
scavenger. It does invaluable service in cleaning up the precincts
of villages where sanitation is unknown, where refuse ‘and garbage
litters the outskirts and where the entire population is obliged to troop
out to attend to the calls of nature, often at no great distance from
their hovels. For, apart from offal and refuse of every description,
this vulture feeds largely on human excrement. At certain Hindu
temples in South India the birds are regularly fed by the priests.
Large numbers from the surrounding country converge at these places
at the appointed hour with clockwork precision.

Nesting: The season is principally from February to April. The
nest is a large filthy and shabby mass of twigs, lincd with rags, hair
and rubbish, placed on some cornice or niche in a ruined mosque,
tomb or fort, the ledge of a cliff or in the fork of a large Banyan, leepal
or similar tree. The eggs—two in number and handsome in appearance
——vary from white to pale brick-red in colour, blotched with reddish-
. brown or blackish, rather thickly round the broad end. Both sexes
share in building the nest, incubation and feeding the young.

238
 

The Laggar Falcon
239
110. The Laggar Falcon
Falco jugger Gray.

Size: About that of the House-Crow.

Fleld Characters: Au ashy-brown falcon with brown-streaked
white under parts and narrow brown check- or moustachial-stripes
ruaning down from in front and below the eyes. Sexes alike, but
female much larger than male. In flight the white breast, dark and
white pattern on the underside of the long, pointed wings and the fact
that generally pairs are seen together, are features suggestive of its
identity. Young birds are brown below.

Distribution: Resident practically throughout India from about
2,500 fect in the Himalayas, (rare in the south) and Assim. Not
found in Burma or Ceylon.

Habits: The Laggar is onc of our commonest falcons. It frequents
dry, open scrub country, the outskirts, of thin jungle, and the
neighbourhood of cultivation, but avoids humid forest tracts. It is
almost invariably met with in pairs which work in co-ordiuation,
usually stooping on and chasing down winged prey, since it is capable
of long-sustained flight at great speed. They are, however, less
courageous and swift’ than the Peregrine falcon (J’alco peregrinus)
which can be distinguished by its slaty grey upper plumage. A pair
frequently take up their quarters within the limits of a town, using
a tower or church-spire as foraging base, whence they take toll of the
urban pigeon population. They are commonly chivvied by crows,
drongos and other birds. Occasionally a party of 5 or 6 may he seen
disporting themselves high up in the air, stooping playfully at one
another with incredible velocity. In addition to small birds, their
diet consists of field rats, lizards, locusts, dragoutlies and the like.
Their call note is a shrill prolonged whi-ce-ee.

The Laggar used to be commonly employed for hunting birds
like partridges, pond-herons, crows and floricans, but with the decline
in the vogue of falconry is now seldam trained.

Nesting: The season is principally between January and April.
The nest is the usual structure of twigs, lined with straw, leaves, etc.,
placed high up in a tree, on the ledge of a clift or im the turret
ar cornice of a ruined building. Old nests of crows, kites and cayles
are frequently appropriated. It is a curious fact that tbe nests of
these falcons are often situated in the same tree, or in the close
proximity of the nests of rollers, doves and other birds which normally
comprise their prey. These co-tenants are left unmolested, and on
their part seem completely unperturbed by the comings and goings
of the predators. The eggs—three to five in number—are of a
beautiful pale stone or pinkish-cream colour, densely blotched and
smudged with brick-red or reddish-brown. Both sexes share in build-
ing the nest, incubation and feeding the young.

240
 

The Kestrel

241
t11. The Kestrel

Falco tinnunculus Linnacus.

Size: About that of the Pigeon,

Field Characters: <A small slender falcon with pointed wings and
longish rounded grey tail, the latter with a bread black band across
tip. Brick-red above, with black wing quills and grey head. Light
buff below, with brown spear-head spets. Female rnfons above

inclnadiug head, cross-barred with blackish.  Singly, in open conntry,
often hovering.

Distribution: Practically throughout the Palwarctic Region.
Three races concern us differing slightly in size and colouration, often
separable with difficulty. ‘They are: objirgatis, resident and breeding
in S. India; duniunculus, the typical European form, which breeds
in W. Himalayfis between 2,500 and 7,000 feet and spreads all over
India and Ceylon in winter; and énlerstinctus (=japanc ‘Ticeh.)
the E. Asiatic race- a winter visitor to E, Himilayas, Assim, Iurma,
KK, & S. India and Ceylon.

Habits; This little falcon affects open country and gris
is partial to the neighbourhood of cultivation and to racky or grass-
covered hillsides, It is usually met with singly perehed day after
day on some favourite mound, bush or telegraph post keeping aw sharp
look-out for creeping prey, ponncing down to the gronnd cvery now
and again and returning with it to its base. Hut it is the Kestrel’s
other method of hunting--the hovering —that is most characteristic.
As it beats over its feeding gronnd, a hundrect feet or more above, the
bird suddenly checks itself every little while, and with head to wind
remains poised in mid-air— sometimes with rapidly quivering wing-tips
and tail fanned out, at others almost motionless for a few seconds- -
while it intently surveys the gronnid beneath. At the suspicion of a
movement in the grass, the bird drops a lew [cet lower to investigate
more closely. If the quarry is sighted it drops silently upon it and
bears it away in its claws. If not, it flies on to repeat the mana-wuvre
some distance farther. The birds stake out feeding territories, and
encroachment by other individuals is actively resisted. While
occasional examples may sometimes turn habitual offenders and tuke
to lilting young chickens of poultry or game, Kestrels as a rnle feed
chietly on field mice, lizards, crickets, locusts and other insects and are
beneficial from the economic paint of view. The usual notes are a
sharp, clear Ai-ki-ki uttered in flight and sometimes while hovering,
and softer ones described as kiddvik-kiddrik.

Nesting: The scason in the Himalayas is April-June, in S. India
Vebruary to April, The nest is a sketchy affair of twigs, roots, rays
and rubbish. It is placed in a hole or crevice, or on the ledge of a
cliff; occasionally on trees and ruined buildings. The eygs—- three
to six- are oval, pale pinkish, or yellowish stone-colour profusely
speckled and blotched with various shades or red. Both sexes share
in building the nest. iuewbation and [ceding the young.

 

    

  

sind. It

 
 

 

 

 

 

 

242
<x
te GW atta ny

 

The Tawny Eagle

243
112. The Tawny Eagle
Aguila rapax (Temm. & Laug,).

‘Size: Larger and heavier than the Pariah Mite,

Field Characters : An umber-brown bird of prey, sometimes
very pale and almost dirty buff. The head is Hat, the bill hooked
ant powerful and the legs feathered down to the toes. Tail
rounded like the vulture’s, but relatively longer. Wings long,
reaching almost to tip of tail when at rest. Female larger that
male. Singly or pairs, on trees or soaring—in open country.

Distribution: Resident throughout India (from abont 4,000
feet in the Himalayas) except in the heavy rainfall tracts, fc.,
Travancore and Malabar, It is found in the dry zane of Upper
Burma but is absent in Ceylon, The only race within our limits
is uindhiana, the typical rapay being African,

Habits : The Tawny, our commonest and most widely distri-
buted eagle, is a bird of semi-desert, dry open plains and scrub-
country, and cultivated Jand dotted with trees. 1t is commonly
met with on the outskirts of villages, scavenging in association
with kites, vultures and crows hy the last of whom it is much
chivvicd. Jt spends its time, perelicd on some dry tree or other
exposed situation, or circling high up in the air or sailing in search
of food. [ts flight is strong and graceful ; when soaring or sailing
the wings are held in a line with the body. It is an inveterate
pirate and habitually rebs falcons, kites and crows of any prize
they have secured, chasing them with speed and determination
and forcing them to give itup. Rarely it also catches hares, rats
and sick or disabled birds, but it prefers to live on carrion and by
piracy rather than kill for itself. It is a great marauder of the
poultry vard and becomes especially destructive to chickens when
it has nest-young to feed. lt has a variety of laud, rancous
cackles, and utters a distinctive guttnral Wrdas ‘ warcry ' while
in pursuit of prey,

Nesting : The season lasts from November to March or April.
Phe nest is a large platform of sticks and twigs, sometimes lined
thinly with grass and leaves, It is mostly situated on the very
top of an isolated tree -a Babool (Acacia arabica) for preference
—often in the vicinity of u village. The eggs—two or tlirce in
number—are white in colour, with a few reddish-brown spots
and specks. Both sexes share in building the nest and feeding
the young, but evidently the female alone incubates. She is a
close sitter, permitting a near approach, but inspite of her fierce
appearance shows no light in defence ol the eggs or young before
finally capitulating.

 

244
 

The Crested Serpent-Eagle
245
113. The Crested Serpent-Eagle

Hematornis cheela (Latham).

Size: Rather larger than the Puriah Kite.

Field Characters: A dark brown raptore with a prominent
black-and-white crest at back of head, very full when erected.
The paler, fulvous-brown underparts are occllated and finely
barred with black and white. In soaring flight a white bar across
the tail—which is seldom spread—and two similar bars on each
of the broad and rounded wings, are suggestive clues. Sexes
alike. Singly or pairs, soaring over wooded country with a
peculiar shrill screaming call.

Distribution : Resident, but wandering locally, throughout
the better wooded parts of the Indian Empire—up toabout 7,000
feet in the Himalayas—and beyond eastwards. \We are chiefly
concerned with 4 geographical races differing in size and details
of colouration, viz., the Himalayan-N. India-Assam race cheela,
the peninsular Indian melanotis, the Ceylonese spilogasier, and the

Burmese burvmanicus. The Andamans and Nicobars possess
endemic races,

Habits : This handsome eagle is an inhabitant of well-watered
country, affecting forested tracts in the plains as well as hills.
Its favourite haunts are jungle-clad ravines, wooded streams and
the edge of forest clearings and cultivation. Here au individual,
or a pair, may be met with perched in a lofty tree often partly
concealed by the foliage, but from where it can command a clear
view of its surroundings. It is also commonly seen soaring in
wide circles high up in the heavens. Its call is a penetrating
high-pitched, screaming whistle of 3 or 4 notes Keh-kek-heh-keé,
chiefly uttered when souring and clearly audible even when the
bird itself is a mere speck in the sky. They are particularly
nvisy during the breeding season.

The food of the Serpent-Eagle consists mainly of frogs,
lizards, rats, and snakes, including poisonous ones, sometimes
of large size. Rarely game birds are also taken, it being swift
and powerful and capable of striking down large species such as
jungle- and peafowl.

Nesting: The season varies somewhat in the different portions
of its vast range, but is principally from December to March.
The nest is a large structure of sticks, scmetimes lined with green
leaves, placed high up in the fork of a lofty forest tree, growing
near a stream or clearing. One egg is laid, creamy or yellowish-
white in colour, boldly blotched with reddish-brown.

246
 

The White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle
247
114. The White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle
Bulastur teesa (Franklin).

Size: About that of the Jungle-Crow.
Field Characters: A small greyish-brown hawk with white
throat, two check stripes, brown and white underparts and orange-
yellow cere. The eves, white or pale yellow, are conspicuous at
close quarters. A tiny white or whitish patel: on the back of the
head is further suggestive of its identity. Sexes alike. Singly,
in open scrub country.
Distribution ; Throughout the drier parts of India and Burma
up to about 3,000 feet in the Himalayas. It is scaree south of
Central India and absent in Ceylon. Resident, but also local
migrant,
Habits: The White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle is an inhabitant of
more or less the same type af dry open serub, thin deciduous
forest and cultivated country as the Tawny Kagle, and like it,
also avoids the wetter and densely wooded tracts. 1 is usually
secn singly, perched on a favourite stump, bush or telegraph pole
whence it swoops down on any smal! animal of nianageable size
that shows itself.on the ground. It occasionally alights on the
ground, watking about and picking up any small fry it may
chance upon, Its diet consists of locusts, grasshoppers, crickets
and other insects as well as small radents, lizards and frogs,
Althaugh frequently charged with game destroying propertsitics,
it is in fact an important conserver, since it rids the countryside
of vast numbers of field rats, mice and lizards which are well-
known enemies of the eggs and young of ground game. It does,
however, occasionally take a sick or wounded bird, While
of somewhat sluggish movements its Ilight is swift and direct,
accomplished by rapid strokes of the rounded wings, and rather
resembling that of the Sparrow-Hiiwk. In the breeding season
the birds are noisy, and their plaintive but not unpleasant mewing
calls may frequently be heard as they soar in circles high up in the
air, often along with bigger birds of prey.
Nesting : ‘The scason is mostly between February and May.
The nest is a loose, unlined structure of twigs, much like a crow’s,
It is pkiced fairly high up in the fork of a thickly foliaged tree
such as mango, preferally one of a clump. The normal clutch
consists of three eggs—unspotted greenish-white in colour, uf a
fairly smooth texture, and broad ovals in shape. The female
keeps uttering 4 curious mewing cry intermittently throughout
the day alter the eggs are laid, which generally gives away the
location of the nest. Both sexes share in building and in
feeding the young. The temale alune does the incubating which
occupies about 1g days.

248
 

Pallas’s or the Ring-tailed Fishing-Eagle
249
x15. Pallas’s or the Ring-tailed Fishing-
Eagle
Haliatius leacorvphus (Pallas).

Size: Considerably larger and heavier than the Pariah Kite.
Field Characters : A large dark brown eagle with pale golden-
brown head and a broad white bar across the tail, particnlarly
conspicuous in jlight. Sexes alike, but female larger. Pairs,
about inland heels and rivers.

Distribution : North India, Assanv and North Borma.
Beyond our limits it is found about the Caspian and Black Seas,
and the Persian Gulf.

Habits: This magnificent eagle is common in the plains olf
Northern India and Burma, invariably haunting the neighbour-
hood of rivers, jheels and marshy ground in pairs- occasionally
also tidal creeks and brackish Inkes. 14 is, however, more con-
fined to fresh water and not met with on the sea-coust. The
birds are seen either petched on the top of some tree or
mound near the water, or sailing aloft in graceful circles, giving
vent to their peculiar loud, rancous screams curiously like the
ereaking of an unoiled wooden pulley of a village well. They
are particularly noisy during the breeding season. Its food
cansists of fish, snakes, rats, crabs and the like, and carrion is
seldom despised. Fish are canght by the bird hurling itself
from the air on one near the surface and carrying it oll in its
talons. It is a powerful creature and on one occasion a fish
weighing 13 Tbs. has been rescued from its clutches. When
negotiating fish of such proportions, the bird is unable to rise
clear of the water and obliged to drag its quarry along the surface
to the nearest land, where it is tern te pieces and devoured.
Hts favourite mode of obtaining a dinner, however, is to attack
Ospreys, Marsh Harriers and such other birds and deprive them
of any prize they have secured. Pairs usually hunt egrets and
other large birds by co-ordinated effort, and take turns at chasing
and harrying the quarry until it is exhausted and can be over-
come. ft has been known to attack a flock of Demoiselle Cranes
and strike down a bird. This eAgle is often a great nuisince to
sportsmen on account of its aggravating habit of swooping dow
on wildfow! falling to a gon, even as large as a Bar-headed Goose,
and carrying them off with the utmost audacity from almost
under the gunner’s nose !

Nesting : November to March. Nest a massive stick pkatlorm
in some large isolated tree standing in or newr water. Same nest
‘often used in successive seasons. Eggs usually threc— white,
broad oval, Both sexes share domestic duties. Incubation
period about jo days.

250
 

The Brahminy Kite
251
116. The Brahminy Kite

Halhiastur indus (Boddaert).
Size: About that of the Pariah Kite,

- Field Characters: <A custv-red bird of prey, with a white
lead and breast down to the abdomen, Lmmature birds are
chocolate-brown and resemble the Parial: Kite from which
however, as also from the immature Scavenger Vultnre, they are
distinguished (especially on the wing) by their rewnded instead
of forked or wedge-shaped tail, Sexes alike. Usually found
near water —triver, jheel, seacoast, &e.

Distribution : Thronghout the Indian Empire (excepting
Balachistan and N.-W, F. Province) up to about 6,000 feet in
the Ilimalayaés. Only the typical race fadis occurs within our
limits, but the species extends eastwards to Australia. Resident,
but also locally ruigratory.

Habits : The Brahminy Nite aftects well watered open country
and avoids both semi-desert tracts and dense forest. It invariably
frequents the neighbourhood of water and miy he seen on alt the
larger rivers and jheels inland, as well as along the sea-coas
where it is abundant around fishing villages and harbours.
freely enters the precincts of towns and villages to scavenge
in company with’ Pariah Kites and crows. Its diet consists
of any ojftal or garbage that can be come by, but it prefers to
pick this off the surface of water. Accordingly sea-ports and
docks are aduiirably suited to their requirements, for here they
get a constant supply of food floating about in the form of rubbish
of every description thrown overboard the slips, During the
monsoon, land crabs in inundated country provide a welcome
change of fare and are much sought after, while winged termites
emerging from the rain-sodden ground are also huwked. Lizards,
fish, frogs and small snakes are likewise eaten, This kite shifts
about a good deal with the seasons. Local movements are
particularly in evidence during the monsoon when the birds move
inlaud owing to the prospects of [cod afforded by the water-
logging of low-lying areas. Its call is a rather harsh, wheezy
squeal——like that of a Pariah Kite snffering from acute sore
throat !

Nesting : The season is mainly from December to April. The
nest is a loose structure of sticks and twigs, occasionally lined
with a few leaves, pluced in a large tree such as a banyian, peepal
or mango, preferably growing near water. Along the coast,
cocoanut palms and the lofty Casuarina trees afford favourite
sites, ‘The eggs, usually two in number, are greyish-white, feehlty
speckled and blotched with pale dingy reddish-brown. Both
sexes share in building the nest, incubation and feeding the
young. The female does most of the incubation, however, which
occupies about 26 or 27 days.

 

 

252
 

jah Kite

The Common Par

253
. 7
117. The Common Pariah Kite
Milvus migrans (Boddaert).

Size: Smalier than the Vulture (about 24 inches).

Field Characters: A large brown raptore, distinguishable
from all similar birds by its forked tail, particularly conspicuons
in flight. Sexes alike. Singly or gregariously, scavenging in
towns and villages.

Distribution: ‘The race govinda is found throughout the indian
Empire and beyond eastwards: -ascending the Llinilagis commonty
up to S,000 feet. A second race lincatus, ditferentiated by a white
patch on the noderside of the wings, is resident in Kashmir and spreads
ont over N. India in winter.

Habits: This commen and familiar bird is a conlirmed com-
mensal of Man, invariably keeping to the neighbourhood of lis
haunts whether in outlying village or populated town, and
profiting by his concerns. It is usually seen perched on i rool-
top, pole or tree, or sailing in circles overhead, eves fixed on the
ground for any seraps that can be lifted, Tt is ane of our most
useful seavengers, Large numbers are always present about
slaughter houses, bazaars and refuse dumps, and about the docks
in seaport towns, The case, swiftness and grace with which a
kite will swoop dewn and carry otf a dead tat or some similar
tit-bit from a narrow, congested lane with all its din and traflie,
twisting and turning masterfully to avoid the luiklings and the
tangle af overhead telephone and electria wires, is a lesson in
aerumuutics and exhilarating to watch. ‘The hird is theroughly
amnivorous and, in addition to the usnal offal and garbage, will
eat practically everything it can come by from cartliwerms on
a freshly watered lawn or aeaidaa, and winged termites emerging
from the rain-sadden ground, to chickens robbed from the
poultry vard. Indeed, the kite often becames i serious menace
to the poultry- keeper, especially when it has nest-voung to feed.
Outside the breeding season the birds roost at night ins barge
congregations in favourite clumps af trees, and much wrangling,
hustling, lapping of wings and wheeling in the air usnally precede:
slumber, Its call note is a shrill, ahnost musical, whistle evee-
wir-wir-wirewiy uttered both fram a perch and on the wing,
Nesting : The season is mmch prolonged, commencing in
September and lasting till March or April, ‘Phe nest is an untidy
platform of twigs, iron wire, rags, taw and rubbish of every
description. It is placed in the head of a cocoanut palin where
available, otherwise in the forked branch of a large tree or on the
roof or cornice of a bnilding. The eggs—-two to four in number:
are a dirty- or pinkish-white, more or Jess spotted and blotched
with reddish-brown or blood ted. Both sexes share in building
the nest, incubation and feeding the young.

   

 

 

 

254
#
€
Z
.
«
3

rs

4

 

The Black-winged Kite

255
118. The Black-winged Kite

Elannus cacrulcus (Desfontaines).
Size: About that of the Jungle-Crow, but somewhat slenderer,
Field Characters : A small ashy-grey and white bird of prey,
with a black line above the eves and Ilack patches on the
shoulders, especially prominent on the closed wings which
extend heyond the square tail, Sexes alike. Singly or pairs,
in scrub conntry or grassland.
Distribution: The Indian race roeiferits occurs patehily practically
(hronghout the Indian Empire, from the base of the Himalays Resi-
dent, but also marked Jocal migrant. The nus Ehearts is repre-
sented in Aineriva, Africa and Asia to Austra
Habits : The Black-winged Kite inhabits wellawooded country
and cultivation. ft is met with, singly or in paits, also in chin
deciduous forest, seruh country and grassland, but avoids dense
jungle and barren plains alike. Although somewhat crepuscular
and more active in the early mornings and just before dusk,
the bird may nevertheless be seen hunting sluggishly throughout
the day. It keeps (oa favonred locality and mity be seen perched
on the same pole or tree-top day after div, cocking its tail from
{ime to time and jerking it up and down between the drooping
wings, From here it pounces upon any prey that shaws itself
on the ground. It beats over the ground flying low, and hovers
emubrously every now and agin, When some movement in
the grass is detected, (he bird, with wings open and often raised
whove the back till almost louching cach other only the tips
quivering slowly parachutes down iv short cistanee to investi-
gate, extending its legs gradually at fhe same time, The
hovering is resumed and presently it descends a step lower to
investigade more closely. In this manner, whea within i few
feet of its qnarry it closes its wings, drops upon the victim: and
bears it away in ils claw Its food cousists of locusts, erickets
and other mseets, lizards, rats and mice, Sickly or wounded
birds are also taken, The ordinary flight is sluggish, accom.
plished by slow deliberide wing strokes as of the Roller, iar)
alternated with short spurts of sailing. The call, seldom heure,
is a shrill squeal, described in’ the ispicat African riee as a
monotonous, oft-repeated gree-er, gree-er.
Nesting : The season is an extended one and covers practically
the entire year. Phe two principal periods, however, are Decem-
ber to March and July to October. The nest is a loose, untidy
erow-like structure of twigs, sometimes dined with ruats and
grass, at others nnlined. It is placed in a small tree, seldom
more than 30 feet from the ground. ‘The eggs three or fonr in
number- are a pretty vellowish-white, usually densely blotched
with brownish-red, Both sexes share in building the nest, ineu-
bation, and feeding the young, The female docs the major
part of the incabation, the male of the food-getting.

 

 

     
   
  

 

 

 
 

 

 

 

  

256
 

The Paie Harrier

257

te
119. The Pale Harrier
Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin).

Size: Slightly smaller than the Pariah Kite and much more
slender-bodied.

Field Characters: A siender, ashy-grey hawk with black
tips to its long, narrow, pointed wings, especially conspicuous in
flight. Female umber-brown with a butt-colonred, rather owl-
like ruff all round the neck —~ behind the carcoverts and across
the throat. Singly, skimming over standing crops and grassland.

Several other species of Harriers visit India during the cold
weather. With the exception of males in adult plumage, they
are not easy to tell one froni another in the field. One of the
commonest of them, however, is the Marsh Harrier (Circits
@ruginosus) found about jheels and swampy ground, and well
known to sportsmen for its annoying habit of making off with a
wounded snipe or teal that has dropped to their gun. The adult
male Marsh Harrier has silvery grey wings and tail. The female
and immature male are rather like the Pariah Kite, but slimmer,
with a rounded tail and usually a creamy-butf cap.

Habits: The Pale Harrier is a generally distributed winter
visitor practically throughout the Indian Empire, arriving about
the middle of September and leaving mostly by the end of March.
It loves cultivated and scrub country, rolling grassland and open
grass-and-scrub covered hillsides. Single birds are usually seen,
indefatigably quartering the gromxl on outspread motionless
wings, gliding gracefully a few feet above the surface and skim-
ming over the standing crops or grass. Every now and again as
the bird—in EHA’s inimitable words— skims along the grass
and skirts the bush, dips to the hollow and rises to the mound as
if it knew some charm to cancel the laws of gravitation,’ it
pounces upon some unsuspecting lizard, frog, mouse, grasshopper
or smaii bird and settles down to dispose of it on the spot before
continuing its beat. 1t perches on the ground or on clods of earth
in preference to a bush or tree. The bird is silent while with us
in its winter quarters.

Breeding Range and Nesting: The Pale Harrier breeds
thronghout Eastern Europe and eastwards to Central Asia, from
April to June. Its nest is a bed of leaves and grass placed on the
ground in a natural hollow, in cornfields and meadows. Four or
five roundish oval eggs are laid, white in calour and usually
spotted and blotched with reddish-brown. |

258
 

The Shikra
259
120. The Shikra

Astur badius (Gmelin).

Size: About that of the Pigeon.
Fieid Characters: A small familiar hawk ashy blue-grey
above, white below cross-barred with rusty brown. Temale
browner above, and larger. Immature, brown and rufous ahove,
broadly streaked with brown below. Tail with broad blackish
bands. Usually pairs, in wooded country and by villages and
cultivation, Sometimes soaring in circles high up, when the
small size, long tail and short rounded wings are suggestive of its
identity.
Distribution: Kesident throughuut the Indian Empire, up to about
5,000 feet in the Himilayds, and beyond from Central Asia to
S. China. Several races are recognised on size and depth of colour-
ation. Three of these chiefly concern us, viz., the continental Indian
dussumierit, Che Ceylon-Travancore badius, and the Assum-Burma
poliopsis. Birds from N.-W. india are nearer the larger and paler
Central Asian race cenchroides.
Habits: The Shikra is a dweller of open wooded country and
avoids heavy forest. It is fond of light deciduous jungle and
groves of large trees about villages and cultivation. The tactics
it employs in capturing prey are mainly those of Surprise. From
its perch in the concealment of some leafy tree, whence it keeps
a sharp look-out for lizards, rats, frogs, locusts and other small
animals, it swoops upon and bears away its victims before they
are aware of danger, It also kills small birds like bush-quails,
doves and babblers swooping on them without warming and
chasing them down with speed and determination. It is bold
and fierce and will often tackle birds much larger than itself.

The flight is swift consisting of several rapid wing strokes
followed by a glide. Except when soaring in circles high up in
the heavens, the Shikra usually flies close to the ground, shooting
up inte the branches of a tree when alighting. its progress is
invariably heralded by the ‘Ware Hawk’ alarm notes of
squirrels and every species of small bird in the vicinity. It is an
inveterate robber of young chickens, especially while feeding its
nest-young, and often hecomes a serious nuisance about villages.
Its usual call notes are exactly like those of the Black Drongo,
only louder. During the breeding season pairs indulge in curious
aerobatics and are very noisy, constantly uttering a sharp double
note ¢t-iui.
Nesting: The season ranges principally between March and
June. The nest is an untidy, loosely put-together structure of
twigs lined with fine grass and roots. It is placed near the top
in a leafy mango or similar tree, preferably one of a clump. Three
or four eggs form the normal clutch. They are pale bluish-white,
sometimes faintly speckled and spotted with prey. loth sexes
share in building the nest and feeding the young, but apparently
the female alone incubates. The incubation period is about 18
to 21 days.

260
 

The Common Green Pigeon

261
121. The Common Green Pigeon
Crocopus phenicopterus (Latham).

Size: That of the Pigeon.
Fleld Characters: <A stout, yellowish olive-green and ashy-
grey pigeon with a lilac patch on the shoulders and a conspicuous
yellow bar in the blackish wings. Sexes alike. Differentiated
from all other Indian green pigeons by its yellow, not red, legs.
Flocks in wooded country, chiefly on banyan and peepal trees
in fruit.
Distribution: Practically throughout the Indian Empire (and
beyond eastwards to Indo-China) except Sind, Bahichistan and the
desert tracts of the N.-W. Three races are recognised on size and
details of colouration, viz., the grey-bellied (typical) N. india-Assiim
race pheenicoptertts, the yellow-bellied 5. India-Ceylon cilorigaster,
and the Burmese viridifrons with yellow forehead, Resideut, but
moving about locally with fruiting seasons.
Habits: This Green Pigeon—as well as the numerous other
species that inhabit our area—is exclusively arhoreal and seldom,
if ever, descends to the ground. It affects open well-wooded
country as well as forest, and is frequently found in the vicinity
af towns and villages, even entering gardeus. The birds deftly
climb about the twigs of fruit-beating trees, often clinging upside
down to get at some fig or berry. They keep in locks of from
10 to 50 birds, and sometimes collect in enormous munibers on
banyan or peepal trees to gorge themselves on the ripe figs, in
association with mynas, hornbills, tulbuls and other fragivorous
species. When a tree is approached, the green pigeons become
immobile. Their plumage blends so perfectly with the surround-
ing leaves that inspite of their large size the birds become com-
pletely obliterated until an inadvertent movement here and
another there gives their presence away. The unsuspected
numbers that will flutter out of a fig-laden banyan when a guu
is fired is often quite amazing. When thus disturbed the flock
will settle in another tree not far off, returning to the feast as soou
as their suspicion is allayed, in twos and threes and small parties
until the foliage is once again a jostling mass of green pigeons all
eager to make up for lost time. The birds spend the day doing
the rounds of fruiting trees, resting at intervals on the topmost
branches of a dry or leafless one. Their food consists entirely of
fruits and berries—wild figs ptedominatingly-—but buds and
shoots are also eaten. They have pleasant, soft and mellow
whistling calls which usually give the first indication of their pre-
sence ina locality. The flight is noisy, swift, strong, and direct.
Nesting: Mainly March to June. Flimsy twig nest, like
dove's, in. moderate sized trees, conceuled in foliage. Occasionally
several together. Eggs—two—white, glossy. Both sexes share
domestic duties. .

262
 

The Blue Rock-Pigeon

263
122. The Blue Rock-Pigeon

Columba livia Gmelin.
Size: Somewhat smaller than the House-Crow. (13 inches).
Fleld Characters: A familiar slaty-grey bird with glistening
metallic green and purple or magenta sheen on upper breast
and around neck. Two dark bars on wings. Sexes alike.
Flocks and colonies, about cliffs and buildings.
Distribution; A widely distributed species in Europe, Asia and
N. Africa with many geographical races. Throughout the Indian
Empire (except S. Burma) 2 races concern us, differentiated on size,
depth and other details of colouration. These are (1) the larger and
paler N.-W. Indian neglecta found up to 13,000 ft. in the Himalayas,
and (2) the smaller and darker intermedia. Resident, but’ moving
locally somewhat with food supply—especially neglecta.
Habits: The Blue Rock-Pigeon ranks with the House-Crow
and Sparrow as one of our most familiar hirds. In the wild state
it affects open country with cliffs and rocky hills, and avoids
heavy forest. In most localities, however, the bird has dege-
nerated more or less into a semi-domesticated commensal of Man.
It keeps to human habitations, and almost every town of any
size has its resident pigeon population. Here it freely interbrecds
with fancy domestic stock causing no little impurity in the race.
The birds become thoroughly inured to the din and bustle of the
most congested bazaars and lead a life of ease and plenty,
roosting and nesting in the neighbouring buildings. Wareliouse
sheds, office and factory buildings and railway stations are parti-
cularly favoured resorts. Here they occupy rafters and cornices
and become an unmitigated nuisance on account of the mess
they make. In the wild state these pigeons are commonly found
living in colonies in and about old crumbling buildings, forts and
tock scarps, where they occupy ledges, fissures, and holes, In
the mornings and evenings the flocks regularly flight back and
forth to feed in the nearby fields. They obtain their food by
gleaning in stubble fields, but may sometimes be destructive to
newly-sown maize, pulse, ground-nuts and the like which mainly
comprise their diet. Their flight is swift and strong. Their call
notes are well-known, a deep gootr-gao, gootr-goo, etc.
Nesting: Hreeding continues throughout the year but is
rather slack in the rainiest months, July to September. Two or
more successive broods are raised. On cliffs, etc., these pigeons
breed in vast colonies building scanty pads of a few twigs, rubbish
and feathers, often huddled close to one another. In towns and
villages, holes and niches in masonry wells, buildings and mosques
are utilised. The normal clutch is invariably of 2 eggs, white
and eliptical, Both sexes share in building the nest, incubation
and feeding the young. Incubation takes about 16 days.

264
 

. The Red Turtle-Dove
Male

2. The Spotted Dove

-_

265
123. The Red Turtle-Dove

GExopopelia tranguebaricn (Hermann).
Size: Ahont that of the Myna,
Field Characters: The female differs in having the mantle
pale brownish-grey instead of pinkish brick-red as in male
(illustrated). Small numbers in open cultivated country, gleaning
in stubble fields, etc.
Distribution: Throughout the [ndian Empire. Two races are re-
cognised on depth of colouration, viz., the fndian franguebavice and
the Burmese kigiilis, Marked local migrant in many areas.
Habits: Perhaps the least abundant of the doves dealt with in
this book. It is a dweller of open cultivated country, and seldom
found in the immediate proximity of Man, Met with singly
or in pairs—sometimes large HWocks—-in association with other
doves. Gleans grain, seeds and vegetable malter on the ground.
Call, a somewhat harsh rolling grou-girr-gov,  groo-giirr-goo
repeated several times quickly.
Nesting: Practically thronghont the vear. Nest, a spatse
flimsy platform of a few twigs, sometimes lined with wisps of
xrass, placed near the end of a branch 10 to 20 feet above ground.
The usual 2 white eggs. Both sexes share in building the nest.

124.. The Spotted Dove
Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli).

Size: Between the Myna and the Pigeon.
Field Characters: Conspicuous white-spotted brown and
grey upper parts with a  white-spotted black —‘ chess-
board’ on hind neck. Sexes alike. Pairs or parties in open
wooded country, gleaning in stubble fields, on paths, ete.
Distribution: Througheut the [Indian Jempire except Sind and the
dry portions ofthe N.-W. Three races nly concern us, ditferentiated
on size and details of colouration, viz., the all-Indian suvafexsis, the
Lurmese figrine aud the Ccylonese ceviovensis.
Habits: Familiar everywhere in open well-wooded and = cul-
tivated country. [ft avoids desert and barren tracts and is
never found far from water. Pairs may commonly be seen
gleaning in stubble fields and fallow land, and along village roads
and cart tracks. lf unmolested the birds become very tame
and confiding freely entering gardens and verandahs, The
flight, as of the other doves, is swift and strong accomplished
by vigorous wing-strokes. The call is an oft-repeated pleasant,
though mournful, kroo-kvik-krith-krou... kroo-kvoo-kroo, the
number of final kvoos varving from 3 to 6,
Nesting: Srecds throughout the year building the customary
flimsy twig nest low down in trees and bushes . also under
eaves and on cornices and beams in verandahs of inhabited
bungalows. ‘The usual 2 white eggs form the clutch. Hoth
sexes share in building, incubation and fecding young.

 

266
 

The Ring Dove

267

 
125. The Ring Dove
Streptopelia decaocto (Frivalszky).
Size: Slightly smaller than the Pigeon.
Field Characters: A pale vinous-grey and brown pigeon-
like bird with a prominent narrow black half-collar on the hind-
neck. Sexes alike. Pairs or parties in open cultivated country.
Another common dove which necds mention is the Little
Brown Dove (Streptopelia senegalensis})—about the size of the
Myna, earthy brown above with pinkish brown underparts
and a miniature ‘ chessboard’ in red and black on either side
of the neck. It is abundant in dry open scrub country through-
out India—tame and confiding, freely eutering and nesting
in bungalows.
Distribution; Throughout the drier portions of the Indian Empire,
ascending seasonally and locally up to to,ooo ft. in the Himalayas,
Two races are recognised viz., the India-Assam-Ceylon decaocto,
and the Burma race xanthocyla. The latter has the bare skin around
eyes bright yellow instead of pale grey or pinkish. Resident, but also
local migrant.
Habits: This is one of the commonest doves of the plains,
very plentiful in certain areas and rather inexplicably scarce
in others, It loves open, cultivated—though essentially dry—
country, abounding in groves of trees within which to retire
during the heat of the day. Thorny scrub, babil and dhak
jungle make favourite roosting places. It is found abundantly
in the neighbourhood of human habitations and feerlessly enters
villages and compounds. Pairs or small parties may be met
with gleaning on the ground, often in company with other doves.
Occasionally they collect in large flocks as when preparing for
one of their local migrations, or to feed in a patch of paddy-
stubble or newly sown jowdy field where the supply is particularly
plentiful. Their diet consists almost exclusively of seeds and
grain. The flight is characteristically pigeon-like, swift and
strong, and attained by rapid, vigorous wing-strokes. Breeding
males indulge in a pretty aerial courtship display, rising vertically
into the air on noisily flapping wings and fanned-out tail for
about 50 ft., and descending in a graceful spiral glide uttering
an aggressive-sounding, prolonged foon-koon-koon. These same
notes are commonly heard when a rival is being chased off.
At other times the bird just flies out from a trec-top flapping
noisily, rises in the air to describe an arc, and coasts down on
outspread motionless wings and tail to another perch. The
usual call notes are a deep and pleasant trisyilabic 4£&k-ko00-kook
repeated several times.
Nesting: Practically ali the year. Scanty twig nest in bush
- or small tree; not in houses. Eggs—two---white, glossy. Both
sexes share domestic duties. .

268
 

The Common Sand-Grouse
Male

Lo 269
126. The Common Sand-Grouse
Plerocles exustus Temm. & Laug.
Size: Somewhat smaller than the Pigeon.
Field Characters: A yellowish-sandy coloured squat, pigeon
like bird with short feathered legs and long pin-pointed tail.
The female differs from the male (illustrated) in being streaked
and barred with black all over except on the chin, She hasa
black band across lower breast. Flocks, in open, arid country ;
entirely ground feeding.
Distribution: Resident over a wide range in Africa and Western
Asia. Also in the dry plains throughout the Indian peninsula, Not
in Assim, Burma or Ceylon. Only the ono race e/lioti is found withio
our limits.
Habits: Common Sand-Grouse, along with the several
other species inhabiting or wintering in our area, affect open
barren plains, stubble fields and fallow land where they live,
feed, sleep and breed. Their colouration is remarkably oblitera-
tive, and blends so perfectly with this environment that when
squatting motionless even large flocks are entirely invisible
at short range. Thus a wounded bird crouching only a conple
of feet away can often give endless trouble locating. The
Common Sand-Grouse is usually met with in flocks of 10 or
12 birds feeding together, but congregations of 200 or more
are not rare. Though often keeping at great distances from
water, they drink regularly a couple of hours after sinrise and
again shortly before dusk. Flock after Hock repairs from every
quarter to a favourite jheel or tank at the appointed hour, and
excellent sport can be had as the birds fly to and from their drink-
ing ground. Their food consists of seeds, grain and vegetable
shoots, and along with it a great deal of gritis swallowed, Their
flight is strong and very swift. The call is « peculiar, penetrating
double note like Aut-ro. It is not particularly loud, but capable
of currying enormous distances and may be clearly heard as the
birds pass overhead often long before they come into view.
Nesting: There is no well-defined breeding season, but most
eggs are found between January and May. ‘hey are laid in
shallow unlined depressions scraped by the birds on the bare
soil in open wastes and desert country, unsheltered by bush or
clod, The normal clutch is of 3 eggs, oval in shape, equally
rounded at both ends. In colour they are pale greyish- or
yellowish-stone with numerous specks and spots of brown scat-
tered over the surface. Both sexes share in incubation. The
young are covered with richly marked down and able to run
about and feed themselves from the moment of hatching out.
. The male apparently conveys water to the chicks by soaking
the feathers of his breast and abdomen while wading in to drink,
which is subsequently sucked in by the chicks.

270
 

The Common Peafowl

Male

271
127. The Common Peafowl
Pavo cristatius Linnacus.

Size: About that of the Vulture, excluding the train of the
cock which is 3 or 4 feet long.
Field Characters : The gorgeous ocellated Lrain of the adult
cock is in reality not his tail but abnormally lengthened upper
tail-coverts. The hen is smaller, lacks the train and is a sober
mottled brown with some metallic green on her lower neck.
She is crested like the cock, Droves, in deciduous forest chietly
plins and foothills, Also semi-wild abont villages and
cullivation,
Distribution: Resident throughout Ceylon and Etndia, locally
up lo 5,000 ft. in the Himflayis, but absent in W. Sind, the extreme
NAAN * and also in NE, ¢ m. Replaced in Burma by the species
yadicis with a pointed | top-knot * crest.
Habits: In the wild state, Peafow! inhabit dense sernl and
decidnous jungle abounding in rivers and streams, They keep
in small flocks usnally composed of a cock aud y oor 5 hens
but sometimes all of one sex, and emerge inte firelines,
clearings and ficlds in) the mornings and evenings to
seratch the ground for food. After the snn is fairly high up
and also in the late afternoons, the flocks troop down to the
witer, tripping gingerly and with the utmost) citcumspection.
They are possessed of phenomenally keen sight | and
hearing, are excessively wary and will slink away throngh the
undergrowth on the least suspicion, The birds are loathe
to leave the ground, but when suddenly come upon they rise
with laborious, noisy Capping. The flight, slow and heavy
at first, develops considerable speed once the birds are well
under way. At night. they roost in lofty trees and at carly
dawn the jungle resounds with the loud, screaming jmeay-awe
calls of the cock which are such an anti-climax to his gorgeous
appearance. He is the first to detect the presence of the larger
cats on the prow! and follows their progress through the jungle
with his ugly say-aweing, a warning well understood by the
other denizens. In many parts of India peafowl are protected
by religion or sentiment. Tlere the birds have become very
abundant and semi-domesticated, freely entering the precincts
of villages and roosting in the neighbonring trees. Their food
consists mainly of grain and vegetable shoots, but they are
omnivorous, and insects, lizards and small snakes seklom go.
past.
Nesting: Jannary to October. Nest, usually a shallow serape
iu dense undergrowth lined with sticks und leaves. LEygs three
to five. —glossy, broad oval, pale cream or ‘ white colice’
Incubation (hen only) 26 to 28 days, Cock polygamous,  Dis-
plays before his bevy of hens by erecting and fanning out his
train and strutting about with peculiar paroxysms of violent
‘aivering.

 

  
  

 

 

272
 

The Red Jungle-fowl

Male

273
128. The Red Jungle-fowl

Gallus gallus (Linnaeus).
Size: That of the village hen or marghi.

Field Characters: The hen differs from the cock (illustrated)
in being a plain streaked brown bird, with rufous-brown under-
parts. Both sexes closely resemble the ‘Game Bantam’
breed of domestic fowls. Small parties in scrub and Sal jungle.
Distribution: The Indian race murghi is resident in N. india and
Assim chietly in the belt of Himalayan Terdi, Bhdbar and foothills
country--upto 5,000 ft. elevation—and south through the eastern
Ceutral Provinces to the Godavari River. 1ts distribution is almost
exactly coincident with that of the S&l tree (Shorea robusta). Burma
and the adjoining eastern countries are occupied by the race robinsonié
which differs in minor colour and other details,

Habits: The Red Jungle-fow]—ancestor of all our domestic
breeds—is a resident of forest conntry, preferably Sal forest
interspersed with patches of scrub jungle, cultivation and
clearings. They keep in small parties comprising usually of a
cock and 4 or 5 hens, feeding in the open in the mornings, retiring
during the heat of the day into the surrounding undergrowth
and emerging again in the fields in the afternoons, They are
very shy and wild, and skulk away through the thickets on the
least suspicion. When suddenly come upon they rise with a
good deal of fluttering and cackling, much like their cdlomestic
cousins, but are fast fliers when well under way and give good
sport over dogs, and when driven. Where roads, cart tracks
or fire-lines run through the forest, Jungle-fowl will invariably
be met with along these in the mornings and evenings, picking
at the droppings of bullocks and other animals, or any grain
that has fallen from a passing cart, or scratching the grout
for food. Their diet consists mainly of grain and vegetalile
shoots but insects, worms and lizards are also eaten. Bamboo
seeds are highly prized, and large numbers will collect to feel
in a patch where these are available. The crow of the cock
resembles that of the Bantam, but it is somewhat shriller and
ends more abruptly. It is uttered principally in the early
morning, and also just before and while the birds are preparing
to roost for the night in some tree or bamboo clump. It is
usually preceded by a noisy flapping of the wings against the
sides and promptly answered by another cock in the vicinity.
Nesting: Principally March to May. Cock apparently mono.
gamous. Nest, a shallow scrape in dense andergrowth lined with
dry leaves, Eggs—five or six—like domestic fowl’s. Incubation
‘(hen only) about 20 days.

274
 

The Grey Jungle-fowl
Male

275
129. The Grey Jungle-fowl
Gallus sonneratti Temminck.
Size: That of the village hen or smirghi.

Field Characters: General effect of the cock streaked grey,
with a metallic black sickle-shaped tail, Hen distinguishable
at a glance from that of the Red Jungle-fowl by her white (not
rufous-brown) breast with blackish streaks. Singly, pairs or
small parties in forest and scrub jungle. ,
Distribution: The forested portions of Central India south of the
range of the last, roughly from Baroda and Mt. Abou on the west to
the mouth of the Godavari on the east, and through S. India to about
Cape Comorin. Not in Ceylon, Burma or Assim, Resident.
Habits: The Grey Jungle-fowl is also a denizen of forest, both
deciduous and evergreen, hill and plain. _It is especially partial
to broken foothills country with bamboo jungle, and to the
thick tangles of Lantana and secondary scrub that invariably
spring up on old toungya clearings and abandoned plantations.
It is usually met with singly or in pairs or small parties, though
occasionally large numbers collect to feed in areas such as where
bamboos or Strobiianthes are seeding. The habits of the two
species are very similar, but this is perhaps even shier and more
timid than the Red Jungle- -fowl. When emerging into the open
to feed in the mornings and evenings it seldom strays far from
cover, scuttling headlong into it with outstretched neck and
drooping tail on the least suspicion. Where unmolested,
however, the birds become quite inured to the presence of Man,
feeding in the proximity of villages and in fields under the plough.
Its diet comprises of grain, shoots, and berries such as those of
Lantana and Zizyphus, gleaned on the ground. It also eats
termites and other insects. The crow of this Jungle-fowl has
been well described as Ktchk-kaya-kaya-hkichk ending with a low
hyukun-kyukun repeated slowly and softly and audible only
at short range. It is heard principally in the early mornings—
often long before daybreak—and evenings, sometimes continuing
into the dark. It is uttered from the top of an ant-hill, stone
or fallen log, or from the nightly roost up in a tree or bamboo
clamp, The crowing is usually preceded by a loud flapping of
wings against the sides, and is answered one by one by all the
other cocks in the neighbourhood.

lt is not definitely known whether this species is mono-
gamous or otherwise. :
Nesting : Eggs and young may be found practically throughout
the year, but the principal laying months are from February
to May. . The nest and its situation are similar to those of the
-Red Jungle-fowl. The normal clutch is of 4 to 7 eggs, pale
fawn to warm buff in colour, very like those of the domestic
fowl in appearance. The hen alone incubates.

276
 

The Common or Grey Quail
Female

277
130. The Common or Grey Quail
Coturnix coiurnix (Linnaeus).

Size: About that of a dove without the tail, or a fortnight-old
domestic chicken,

Field Characters: A plump and squat pale brown partridge-
like bird, practically tailless, with conspicuous buil spear-shaped
streaks and irregular blotches and bars of reddish-brown and
Dlack wbove. The male has a black anchor mark on the throut.
Outer webs of primaries barred with buff. Pairs or gregariously,
on the ground, in cultivation and grassland.
Distribution: The typical race is cesident over N. Africa, i
Central: and sparingly over the greater part of and Central
india east to Manipir. in winter immigrants from across our borders
spread abundantly over most of continental India, but uot to Ceylon,
‘The Easter race japonica, visits Assim and Burma in winter
Habits : The Grey Quail is partly resident in India and puttly
migratory, i.e., though the species is found in our midst throughont
the year its numbers ure augmented by millions upon millions
of fresh arrivals from beyond our northern and north-western
froutiers between August and October. These immigrants
depart agai by about the end of April, Ht is a bird of open
country, frequenting standing crops and grassland, Lt usually
keeps in pairs, but numbers may concentrate in a spot where
food is plentiful or shelter good, ‘Thus in the Himalayas and
Kashmir, partienlarly on spring emigration, when most of the
crops have been harvested and only a few standing, Tundreds
may be pnt up in a single field, When flushed, the bird rises
with a characteristic low whirr of wings. accompanied by a
squeaky whistling note almost vertically upwards for some
distance and flies off at a height of six feet or so, to plunge again
into the crops a couple of hundred vards further, The flight,
swift and direct, is attained by rapid, vibrating wing strokes,
and is typical of game birds of this class. Its call is a loud
whistling note followed rapidiy by two short ones, It has been
deseribed as a ‘very liquid Wet-mi-dips?. ts diet consis
almost entirely of grain and grass secds, but termites and other
insects are also eaten. Vast numbers of quail ure netted annually
all along their migration routes, both autumn and spring, and
were it not for the fact that they are prolilic breeders, the species
would have become extinct long ago, On the spring passage
to their breeding grounds, the birds are very fat and considered
i great delicacy for the table. Males are largely kept as fighting
birds. Considerable sums change hands over the bouts, aud
victorious birds often fetch prices ranging upto Rs.109 or more.
Nesting : Our resident birds normally breed between March
and May, but occasional nests may be found from February
to October. The nest is a shallow serape sparsely lined with
Srass, usually well concealed in standing crops or grass. 6 to
ty eggs comprise a clutch. In colour the eggs are reddish-or
vellowish-butt, speckled and blotched with dark brown.

 

   

  

  

 

 

 

 

 

 

278
 

’ The Black-breasted or Rain-Quail
Male

279
131. The Black-breasted or Rain-Quail
Coturnix coromandelicus (Gmelin).

Size : Slightly smaller than the Grey Quail.

Field Characters: Similar to the Grey Quail except that
the upper breast and frequently also the centre of the abdomen
is black. Female very like that of the previous species, but in
the hand both sexes can be told from the Grey Quail by the
absence of the buff and brown eross-bars on the primary wing
quills. Pairs or small parties, on the ground, in cultivation and
grassland.

Distribution : Throughout India (up to abont 6,000 ft. in
the Himalayas) Assim and North Burma. Rare in Ceylon.
Resident but also local migrant.

Habits: This handsome quail affects tall grassland and
standing erops. In general habits it differs little from the last
species, and the two are frequently found in association, In
up-country stations it commonly enters gardens and compounds
wherever any clumps Of grass afford cover, and also haunts open
semi-cultivated country around villages. Wet grassland and
paddy-fields attract it likewise. The Rain-Quail, though a more
or less resident species thronghout its range, moves about a
great deal locally with the seasons. This is particularly the
ease in the monsoons and due doubtless to the conversion of
otherwise bare traets into suitable grassland at this period, and
the consequent availability of food and cover. Its movements,
however, are little understood as yet.

The call is a disyllabic musical whistle which-which. .which-
which, ete., constantly repeated, chiefly in the anornings and
evenings. In the breeding season indeed it may be heard most
of the day and even during the night. It is quite distinet from
and unmistakable with the call of the Grey Quail.

Nesting: The season is from March to October, but most
eggs are laid after the break of the S.-W. Monsoon in
June. The nest is a scrape lined with grass, like that of the
Grey Quail, and usually also in similar situations. Sometimes
itis in the open under shelter of a cactus or other bush. The
eggs—6 to 8 in number—are slightly glossed pale ereamy-buff
or stone colour, blotched with varying shades of brown. They
tesemble those of the last species, but are pueh smaller. The
female alone ineubates.

280
 

The Jungle Bush-Quail
Male

281
132. The Jungle Bush-Quail

Perdicula asiatica (Latham).

Size: That of the Rain-Quail.
Field Characters: The female differs from the male illus-
trated) in the absence of the black barriug on the underparts.
In her case the underparts are dull vinous brown. She also has
the chestnut chin and throat. Coveys in dry scrub country.

A very similar and confusing species, the Rock Bush-(juail
P. argoondah is often found side by side with this.
Distribution: Resident locatly thronghout India (from the Hima-
layan fcothills to Cape Comorin) and Ceylon, in the plains and up to
about 4,000 ft. in the hills. Absent in Sind, parts of Rijpttina, Eas-
tern Bengal, Assim and Burma. Four races are recognised on «tetiils
of colouration, viz., the dark Ceylonese ceylonensis, the red Konkan-
Malabar vidali, the pale N.-W. Indian punjanbi, and the typical
astatica which occupies the remaining portions.
Habits ; The Jungle Bush-Quail affects fairly open deciduous
forest as well as dry stony country with grass-and-scrub juugle.
It is found in stubble fields and stony grassland, but seldom in
standing crops. The birds live in coveys of 5 to 20 and have a
habit of forming themselves into ‘squares’ when resting---
crouching bunched together under a bush or in the open, all
facing outwards—and of suddenly ‘ exploding’ or rising with a
whirr of wings when almost trod upon, aud dispersing in all
directions. These ‘ explosions’ are apt to be rather embarrassing
when one is stalking big game. ‘The birds drop after a short
flight, and the covey soon re-unites by means of soft whistling
calls, whi-whi-whi-whi, etc., uttered by its members. They also
roost at night in the manner described and are easily captured by
fowlers who, having marked down a retiring covey, return under
cover of darkness and throw a net over the sheltering bush. The
birds troop down iu single file to drink in the mornings and even-
ings, and shift from one feeding ground to another in like manner,
using the same little paths or tunnels formed in the matted and
bent-over grass, day after day. Their food consists mainly of
grain, grass seeds and tender shoots. Breeding males are pug-
nacious and challenge rivals by harsh grating calls as of the Black
Drongos ‘ arguing’ at the onset of their breeding season.
Nesting : Males are apparently monogamous, but this has not
been ascertained. The season is not well-defined, and ranges
between August and April. The nest is a scrape in the ground,
lined with grass, under shelter of a bush or grass-tussock, usually
in scrub jungle. The eggs—4 to 8 in number—are creamy-white
in colour and fairly glossed. Incubation, which takes about 16
days, is carried on by the hen alone.

282
 

The Black Partridge

Male

283
133. The Black Partridge

Francolinus francolinus (Linnaeus).

Size: About that of a half-grown village mtrghi.

Field Characters: A plump, stub-tailed game bird chictly black,
spotted and barred with white. The female is considerahly paler,
mottled and speckled black and white. Singly or pairs, in well-watered
and cultivated country.

The Painted Partridge (Ff. pictus), in appearance rather like the
female Black Partridge and with a similar call, occupies a large part
of the Peninsula south of the range of this species.

Distribution: Resident throughout N. India (commonly up to 5,000
ft. in the W. Himalayas) cast tu Manipiir in Assim. Its southern
buundary is roughly a curve from Cutch through Gwalior to Chilka
Lake in Orissa. Westward, beyond our limits, it extends to Asia
Minor, We are concerned with 3 races differing in details of colour-
ation, viz., the pale Sind-Bulichistan-Persia Aenvici, the dark Sikkim-
Assim melanotus, and the intermediate asie.

Habits: This handsome partridge loves well-watered scrnb-,
tamarisk- and tall grass-jungle. Riverain country, intersected
by irrigation canals and tributaries, such as is now typical of
many portions of N. India and Sind, overgrown with dense tamarisk
scrub and interspersed with millet, sugarcane and other crops are
eminently suited to its requirements. It thrives equally well, however,
in the drier portions of its habitat, ascending the Himalaydn fouthills
where among other facies it is partial to tea plantations and their
environs. They keep in pairs, though 3 or 4 birds may frequently be
found together, while a good patch of scrub on being beaten may
produce ten, twelve or even more birds. They afford excellent sport
tising with a whirr of wings singly ur in twos and threes and fying
swiftly and strongly. Often the birds will run ahead of the line of
beaters and rise suddenly and unexpectedly a good many together,
neat the edge of the beat, putting the sportsman off completely. The
birds enter the crops to feed chiefly in the mornings and evenings.
They are exceedingly swift runners and will usually trust to their
legs for escape unless driven or gnddenly come upon, While walking
along the ground the stub-tail is often held slightly cocked as in the
moorhen, a peculiarity not seen in the Grey Partridge. Their food
consists of grain, grass seeds and tender shoots, but white ants and
other insects are also eaten. The cheerful call of the Black Partridge
is a curious mixture of the musical and the harsh—a high-pitched
chick . . . cheeh-cheek-keraykeh—syllabified by the Empcror Babur
as Shir-dévem-shahvak (‘1 have milk and a little sugar '}. It is uttered
at short intervals, chiefly in the mornings after sunrise and in the
evenings far into the dusk, the birds answering one another from all
quarters. The call has a peculiar ventriloquistic and far-reaching
quality. These partridges are extensively netted, and their numbers
in many localities have dwindled considerably within recent years.
Nesting: The scason lasts from April to July. The nest is a shallow
depression scraped in the ground and lined with grass. It is situated
amongst the roots of grass clamps and bushes, in tamarisk scrub,
grassland or millet fields. The normal clutch is of 6 to 8 eggs, varying
from pale olive-brown to almost chocolate-brown.

 

284
 

The Grey Partridge

285
134. The Grey Partridge

Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin).
Size: About that of a half-grown village chicken (13”).
Fieid Characters: A plump, stub-tailed greyish-brown game
bird with fine wavy black and buff vermiculations all over, and
‘some chestnut in the tail. Sexes alike. Pairs or coveys, in dry
scrub country and cultivation.
Distribution: Resident in the dricr portions-—-mostly plains—
throughout India up to about 1,500 ft. in the Himd@layis, cast to
Bengal and south to (including) Ceylon. Westward, beyond our liniits,
to Persia. Three races concern us, differing im details of size and
colouration, viz. : the paicst Persia-Balichistan mecranensis, the darker
Sind-N. India inferpositus and the darkest S. India-Ceylon pondi-
cevianus,
Habits: The Grey Partridge inhabits dry, open grass-and-
thorny-scrnb country interspersed with cultivation, and avoids
heavy forest and humid tracts. It is commonly found on the
outskirts of villages. Except when paired off for breeding, the
birds go about in coveys of 4 to 6, scratching the ground and
cattle dung for food, and running about with a jaunty, upright
carriage. On alarm the covey scuttles away swiftly, the birds
finally taking surreptitious refuge in some thicket, and are loathe
to fly unless hard pressed. When flushed, they rise with a loud
whirr, scattering in different directions with rapid strokes of their
short rounded wings, alternated with pauses of gliding. After a
short flight the bird resettles on the ground but continues to run
on immediately, so that on approaching a bush wherein one has
apparently taken cover it is found to have vanished and will be
decried running on swiftly along way ahead. They roostat night up
in thorny trees and bushes, and will often take shelter into these
when harried in day-time. The call of the cock Grey Partridge
is one of the most familiar and exhilerating sounds on the country-
side. It commences with two or three rather subdued chuckles,
rising in scale and: intensity, followed by a ringing high-pitched
and musical kateciuy-kateetuy or pateela-patecla, quickly repeated,
The call of the female is a less challenging pela-pela-pela, etc. The
birds are easily snared and netted by means of trained decoys and
find a large and ready demand as food. Indiscriminate netting
has caused a serious diminution of their numbers in many areas.
Young birds are hand-reared and trained for fighting purposes.
They become exceedingly tame, following their master about like
a dog, calling to his order and coming long distances when sum-
moned. Its food consists of seeds, grain, shoots and berries such
as Lantana. It also eats maggots, white-ants and other insects.
Nesting : The season extends practically throughout the year,
the favoured months varying according to locality. The nest is
a simple grass-lined scrape in the ground in grassland, plonghed
fields, standing crops or scrub jungle. The eggs—4 to 8—are
cream coloured or café-au-lait. Apparently only the hen
incubates though both parents usually accompany the chicks.

286
 

The Bustard-Quail

Female

287
135. The Bustard-Quail
Lurnix sitscitator (Gmelin).

Size : Somewhat smaller than the Rain-Qnail.
Field Characters : An unmistakable quail with the breast
cross-barred with black and lynif. Contrary to the normal
condition in birds the female (illustrated) besides being larger,
is more richly coloured than the male, his chin, throat and breast
being whitish-buff. Bustard-Quails are distinguishable in’ the
hand from true quails by the absence of the hind-toe. Pairs or
small parties, in sernl and grassland.
Distribution : esident-—cxcept in Sind, the Punj net the NW.
practically throughout India, Assan, Burma and Ceylon, up to about
4.000 ft. in the Himalayas. Seven geographicat races are recognised
on detaits of colouration, of which the three most widely ranging are
plhonbipes (N. Burm am, N. india west to Nepal), tafjear (all
india sonth of above) and leggei (Ceylon).
Habits : Excepting dense forests and deserts, the Bnstard-
Quail is found in every type of country. It is partial to open
scrub and light deciduous forest and is frequently met with
feeding in small clearings and on footpaths and tirclines through
these. It also haunts the ueighbonrhood of cultivation. ‘The
birds usually keep in pairs or 3 or 4 together, and while generally
distributed they are nowhere abundant, ‘They are great skulkers
and flushed with difficulty only when almost trampled upon,
flying low and dropping again into the undergrowth after a few
yards. In flight the pale buff shoulder-paiches on the wings are
conspicuous and suggestive of their identity. Their food consists
of grass seeds, shoots, grain and smali insects.

The call uttered by the hen, who is highly pugnacions, is a

loud drumming drr-v-v-7-r-7 often continued for 15 seconds at a
stretch and sometimes heard even on a piteh dark night. It
serves both to announce her whereabouts to a cock and as a
challenge to rival females. For, in the Mustard-Quails (aid
their three-toed cousins the Botton-Qnails) the normal role of the
sexes is reversed. The fernale is polyandrous ; she does all the
courting, and fights furionsly with rival hens for the possession of
acock., As soon as a mate is secured and the eggs laid, her part
of the contract is over, She consigns the cock to inculsite them
and rear the family, and forthwith busies herself with making
fresh conquests. Thus asingle hen may, ahnost simultaneously,
have several clutches of eggs or broods of chicks under the te-
spective charge of her various husbands, Another calt, a subdued
booming hoon-hoon-hvon-hoon, sometimes for 5 scconds or more,
is alse heard, but it is uncertain as to what sex or conditions
produce this.
Nesting: Practically throughout the year, presumably as long
as the female can provide herself with gnilible suitors! The
nest is a grass-lined depression on the ground. sometimes arched
over and canopied by the surrounding grasses--in scrub jungle
orecrops. The egps---3 or 4 —are yreyish-white, profusely speckled
with reddish-brown or blackish-purple. ‘They are broad, ebtuse
ovals in shape and of a glossy texture.

 

  

 

 

   
  

  

 
THE USEFULNESS OF BIRDS

It has been said that Birds could exist without Man but
that Man would perish without Birds. This observation has
been further amplified by the remark that ‘ But for the trees
the: insects would perish, but for the insects the birds would
perish, but for the birds the trees would perish, and to follow
the inexorable Jaws of Nature to the conclusion of their awful
vengeance, but for the trees the world would perish.’ An
impartial scrutiny of the facts, shows that there is indeed little
extravagance in either of these statements.

As destroyers of insect pests

The variety, fecundity and voracity of insects are
unbelievable. Over 30,000 forms have been described from the
Indian Empire alone—or more than ten times the number of
bird species and races—and. probably many more still remain
to be added to the list. Practically all living animals as well
as plants furnish food for these incomputable hordes. Many
estimates have been made of what a single pair of insects would
increase to if allowed unchecked multiplication, and astounding
figures have been reached rivalling in their stupendousness
those which we associate with astronomical calculations. A
Canadian entomologist has estimated that a single pair of
Colorado Beetles or Potato Bugs (Leptinotarsa decemlineata—
belonging to the prolific family Chrysomelidea of which over
20,000 species are known throughout the world, and which is
well represented in India) would, without check, increase in
one season to sixty millions. Riley computed that the Hop
Aphis or Chinch Bug (Blissus leucopterus), very destructive to
grasses and cereals in America, which develops 13 generations in
a single year would, if unchecked, reach ten sextillion individuals
at the end of the rth generation. It is calculated that if this
brood were marshalled in line end to end at the rate of ro per
inch, the procession would be so long that light, travelling at
the rate of 184,000 miles per second, would take 2,500 years to
reach from one end to the other !

A caterpillar is said to eat twice its own weight in leaves
per day. Certain flesh-feeding larve will consume within
24 hours .200 times their original weight. It is affirmed that
the food taken by a single silkworm in 56 days equals in weight
86,000 times its original weight at hatching. Locusts are as
notorious for their prolific reproduction as for their prodigious
appetites. Their swarms are sometimes so thick as to obscure
the sun, and such a visitation will in the course of a few short
hours .convert green and smiling areas into a desolate tract
with nothing but bare stems. The female locust lays its eggs

at

aaa 289
in capsules underground, each capsule containing about 100
eggs, and several of these capsules are laid by each individual.
On a farm in South Africa measuring 3,300 acres no less than
14 tons of eggs have been dug up at one time, estimated to have
produced 1,250 million locusts. It is evident from their rate of
increase that unless insect numbers were kept under constant
and rigid check, it would not be long before all vegetation vanished
completely from the face of the earth.

A large proportion of the normal food of birds consists of
insects including many that are in the highest degree injurious
to Man and his concerns. Birds of many species not only take
heavy toll of the marauding locust hordes all along their flight
lines but also scratch up and devour their eggs in vast quantities,
as well as the different stages of the young locust after hatching.
The White Stork is a well-known locust destroyer, and the
enormous nesting colonies of the Rosy Pastor live and feed their
young exclusively upon these insects on their common breeding
grounds in Central Asia, An idea of the extent of good birds do
in destroying insect pests may be had from the fact that many
young birds in the first few days of their lives consume more
than their own weight of food in 24 hours. A pair of starlings
have been observed to bring food (caterpillars, grasshoppers,
locusts, etc.) to their nest-young 370 times iu a day, and accord-
ing to Dr. W. E. Collinge, the well-known British authority, House-
Sparrows bring food (caterpillars, soft-bodied insects, etc.) from
220 to 260 times per day. A German ornithologist has estimated
that a single pair of Tits with their progeny destroy annually at
least 120 million insect eggs or 150,000 caterpillars and pup.
This warfare is waged not only when the insects are at the peak
of their periodical abundance, but incessantly, relentlessly, and in
all stages of the insects’ lives. Therefore, where birds have not
been unwisely interfered with, they constitute one of the most
effective natural checks upon insect numbers.

As destroyers of other vermin

Owls, Kestrels, Hawks and the birds of prey generally—so
often accused of destruction to poultry and game and slaughtered
out of hand—are amongst the most important of Nature’s checks
upon rats and mice, some of the most fecund and destructive
vermin from which Man and his works suffer. These vermin do
enormous damage to crops and agricultural produce, and are,
besides, the carriers directly or indirectly, of diseases often
fatal. to Man. The ravages of the Sind Mole-Rat in the rice-
growing tracts of the Indus Delta in Lower Sind have been
estimated by a competent authority as between 10 and 50 per
cent of the entire paddy crop. This Mole-Rat breeds throughout

290
WIN} Sty SUlpremMe Yo] OWldI}xXe UO aINnIMA Fury] 230N
BSHOIED B BY SOINI[NA JO ofEWIUIIIS VY

 
the year. The number of young born in a litter is 5-10, but in
October and November the litters are very large varying from
14 to 18 young each. Mice are equally fecund and destructive.

It has been computed that one pair of House-rats having
6 litters of 8 young annually and breeding when 3} months
old, with equal sexes and no deaths, would increase at the end
of the year to 880 rats. At this rate the unchecked increase
of a pair in 5 years would be 940,369;969,152 rats. Such
calculations, of course, are purely theoretical and their results
will never be approached in Nature, but they are not extravagant
qua the power to reproduce and are based on moderate and
conservative estimates.

It will thus be seen that every pair of rats destroyed by
birds means the annual suppression of a potential increase of
880 rats. Many of our owls and diurnal birds of prey feed
largely on rats and mice; some of the former, indeed, live
more or less exclusively on them. Two or three rats or mice
apiece or their remains may frequently be found in the stomachs
of Horned-Owls, for example, and as digestion in birds is a
continuous and rapid process it is conceivable that a larger
number may be destroyed in the course of 24 hours. Since
these birds are engaged in the good work from year’s end to
year’s end, some estimate of their beneficial activities can
be made.

As scavengers

Vultures, Kites and Crows are invaluable scavengers. They
speedily and effectively dispose of carcases of cattle and other
tefuse dumped in the precincts of our villages—notoriously
lacking in any organised system of sanitation—that would
otherwise putrefy and befoul the air and produce veritable
culture beds of disease. The services of the birds are of especial
importance during famines and cattle epidemics when large
numbers of domestic animals perish and at best are left by the
wayside covered with a flimsy layer of earth to be exhumed by
the first prowling jackal that happens on the spot. The speed
and thoroughness with which a party of vultures will dispose of
carrion is astounding.

As flower-poilination agents

While the importance of bees, butterflies and other insects
in the cross-fertilisation of flowers is well-known, the large part
played by birds in the same capacity has not been adequately
appreciated. A large number of birds of divers families and
species are responsible for the cross-fertilisation of flowers, many
of them possessing special adaptations in the structure and
mechanism of their tongue and bill for the purpose of extracting
honey from the base of the flower tubes. Flower-nectar is

292
tich in carbo-hydrates and provides excellent nutriment, so
much so that many of the most highly organised flower-birds
subsist more or less exclusively on this diet. In trying to reach
the nectar, the forehead or throat of the bird comes into contact
with the anthers. The ripe golden pollen dust adheres to the
feathers and is transported to the mature stigma of the next
flower visited, which it thus fertilises. It is little realised how
largely responsible birds are for the success of the present-day
Match Industry in India. Of all the indigenous woods that
have been tried in the manufacture of matches, that of the
Silk Cotton tree has been found to be the most satisfactory as
regards quality, abundance and accessibility. The large showy
crimson flowers of this tree serve as a sign-post to attract the
attention of the passing bird. They contain a plentiful supply
of sugary nectar, which is eagerly sought after by birds of many
kinds—over 60 different species have been noted—and are
mainly cross-pollinated through their agency. Birds thus
contribute to the production of fertile seed and the continuance
of healthy generations of the tree, and incidentally to the supply
of raw material for your box of matches. A careful scrutiny
will doubtless reveal that we are ultimately dependent upon
birds in this House-that-Jack-built sort of way for many more
of our every-day requirements. The Coral tree (Erythrina),
which is largely grown for shade in the tea and coffee plantations
of South India, is also one whose flowers are fertilised chiefly,
if not exclusively, by birds of many species.

As seed dispersers

In the dissemination of seed and the distribution of plant
life, birds play a predominant part in this country. Their
activities unfortunately are not always of a beneficial character
from the economic point of view. No hetter instance of the
extent of their seed-dispersing activities can be cited than that
of the Lantana. This pernicious plant of Mexican domicile
was first imported into Ceylon for ornamental purposes just over
a century ago. It has since overrun thousands of square miles
of the Indian continent, and become the despair alike of agri-
cultnrist and forester. Its phenomenal spread within this
comparatively short period would have been impossible without
the agency of birds, numerous species of which greedily devour
the berries which the plant everywhere produces in such over-
whelming profusion. A Black-headed Oriole has been observed
swallowing 77 berries in the course of 3 minutes, The seeds
pass through the birds intestine unaffected by the digestive
juices, and out with the waste matter in due course. They

germinate rapidly under favourable conditions and establish
themselves,

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Another noxious plant that is entirely bird propagated is
the J.ovanthus trec-parasite. it belongs to the Mistletoe family,
well represented in this country, almost all of whose Indian
members are more or less wholly symbiotic with Sunbirds,
Flowerpeckers and other bird species, which both fertilise its
flowers and disperse its seeds. Bulbuls and Barbets are largely
responsible for the dissemination of the seeds of the Sandalwood
tree in South India and are welcome in Sandalwood plantations.
In the newly colonised canal areas of the Punjab, the Mulberry
owes its abundance mainly to propagation by birds, Experi-
ments have even shown that the seeds of such plants as grow on
richly manured soil, after passing uninjured through a bird’s
intestine, produced stronger seedlings than those which were
cultivated without such advantages.

As food for man

A feature of the larger dhands or jheels in Sind and other
places in Northern India during the cold weather is the magnitude
of the netting operations that go on throughout this season for
supplying the markets of the larger towns, both near and distant,
with wildfowl of every description for the table. The population
of the neighbourhood of these jheels subsists during these mouths
more or less exclusively on the flesh of water birds or on the
traffic in them. Round every village near a dhand of any size
in Sind may be seen little mounds of coot feathers which furnish
an indication of the esteem the bird enjoys as an article of diet.
The wildfowl netting operations on the Manchar Lake alone
involve a turnover of several thousand rupees annually,
besides providing the inhabitants of the neighbourhood with
free or almost free sustenance for several months in the year.

Quails, Partridges and other game birds are also netted or
shot for eating purposes, and innumerable other species of every
description are caught and sold in the bazaars to fanciers,
yielding substantial returns to those engaged in the trade.
Egret feathers

Until a few years ago Egret-tarming for the sake of the
valuable plumes was a profitable cottage industry and largely
practised on the various dhands or jheels in Sind. The dainty
‘decom posed ’ breeding plumes of the white egrets,—aigrettes as
they are known to the trade—were largely exported to Europe
for ladies’ head-dresses, tippets, boas, muffs and for other
ornamental purposes, They were almost worth their weight
in gold, and brought in handsome profit to the farmers. With
the change in ladies’ fashions, the demand has dwindled consi-
derably, and with it the prices. The working of the Wild Birds
and Animals Protection Act has put a further check upon exports,
and most of the egret farms have gradually disappeared.

204
 

Thick-billed Flowerpecker eating Loranthus berries

This bird is largely responsibie for the spread of the
tree-pzrasite

295
Birds’ nests

There are other minor products of birds which, if properly
husbanded, could be made to yield considerable revenue in
India. The saliva nests of the so-called Edible Swiftlets
(Collocalia), which breed in vast colonies on islands off the Burma
coast and that of the Konkan (W. India), are even now a source of
considerable income to thase engaged in the trade and of royalty
to Government, The nests are collected and exported to China
as an epicurean delicacy, the better qualities fetching from Rs, 7
to 14 per lb. The value of nests imported into China during
1923, 1924 and 1925 exceeded Rs. 25 lakhs; a fair praportion
of these came from the Indian Empire.

Guano

Guano which is really the excrement of sea birds such us
gannets, cormorants and pelicans is another product of great
commercial value. The fertilising properties of the phosphoric
acid and nitrogen contained in fish were not recognised until
guano became a stimulus to intensive agriculture. The real
guano is found in vast stratified accumulations on islinds off
the coast of Peru, and although no deposits of like magnitude
or value exist within our limits, yet the possibilities of the

‘guano’ of colonial nesting birds have not been seriously
exploited in India.

From all that has been said it must net be assumed that
birds are a wholly unmixed blessing. They are injurious
to Man’s interests in a number of ways, They destroy his crops,
and damage his orehards, flower beds and vegetable gardens ;
they devour certain beneficial insects and prey upon fish and
other animals nsefu! to Man as food; they act as intermediate
hosts of parasites that spread diseases among his livestoek and
disperse them far and wide in the course of their migrations ;
they fertilise the flowers and disseminate the seeds of noxious
plants and weeds. Yet with all there can be no doubt that the
good they do far outweighs the harm, which must therefore be
looked upon as no more than the lubourer’s hire.

The ease for the protection and conservation of birds in a
country like ours—so largely agricultural and forested and
therefore at their merey,—is clear, and needs no eloquent
auvocacy. Quite apart from the purely materialistic aspect.
however, it must not be forgotten that Man eannot live by bread
alone. 13y the gorgeousness of their plumagey and the loveliness
of their forms, by the vivaciousness of their movements and
the sweetness of their songs, birds typify Lifeand Beauty. They
rank beyond a doubt among those important trilles that supple-
ment bread in the sustenance of Man and make living worthwhile,